Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept
Open accessAbstract
The concept of hegemonic masculinity has influenced gender studies across many academic fields but has also attracted serious criticism. The authors trace the origin of the concept in a convergence of ideas in the early 1980s and map the ways it was applied when research on men and masculinities expanded. Evaluating the principal criticisms, the authors defend the underlying concept of masculinity, which in most research use is neither reified nor essentialist. However, the criticism of trait models of gender and rigid typologies is sound. The treatment of the subject in research on hegemonic masculinity can be improved with the aid of recent psychological models, although limits to discursive flexibility must be recognized. The concept of hegemonic masculinity does not equate to a model of social reproduction; we need to recognize social struggles in which subordinated masculinities influence dominant forms. Finally, the authors review what has been confirmed from early formulations (the idea of multiple masculinities, the concept of hegemony, and the emphasis on change) and what needs to be discarded (onedimensional treatment of hierarchy and trait conceptions of gender). The authors suggest reformulation of the concept in four areas: a more complex model of gender hierarchy, emphasizing the agency of women; explicit recognition of the geography of masculinities, emphasizing the interplay among local, regional, and global levels; a more specific treatment of embodiment in contexts of privilege and power; and a stronger emphasis on the dynamics of hegemonic masculinity, recognizing internal contradictions and the possibilities of movement toward gender democracy.
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Cultural notions of masculinity are strongly tied to heterosexuality.
“many researchers have documented the strong ties between cultural notions of masculinity and of heterosexuality”
From Intersections between Sexual Identity, Sexual Attraction, and Sexual Behavior among a Nationally Representative Sample of American Men and Women (2019) · cites this paper as Connell and Messerschmidt 2005
Critical discourse and semantic analysis of the incels.co forum and Minassian's interview reveal dominating hate speech and gendered hegemonic language, which seeks to re-establish a gendered hierarchy.
“Critical discourse and semantic analysis of the incels.co forum and Minassian's interview reveal dominating hate speech and gendered hegemonic language, which seeks to re-establish a gendered hierarchy (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005).”
From Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence, Hate Speech, and Terrorism: A Risk Assessment on the Rise of the Incel Rebellion in Canada (2023) · cites this paper as Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005
Complicit masculinities help police gender performances, reinforcing hegemony.
“Its dominance relies on the functions of other masculinities; for example, complicit masculinities help police gender performances, reinforcing hegemony (Connell and Messerschmidt 2005).”
From Technology-facilitated sexual violence perpetration as a tool for gender policing in secondary schools (2026) · cites this paper as Connell and Messerschmidt 2005
Hegemonic masculinity exists in relation to emphasized femininity and non-hegemonic masculinities, reinforcing gender inequities across societal institutions.
“Hegemonic masculinity exists in relation to emphasized femininity and non-hegemonic masculinities, reinforcing gender inequities across societal institutions.”
From Technology-facilitated sexual violence perpetration as a tool for gender policing in secondary schools (2026) · cites this paper as Connell and Messerschmidt 2005
Hegemonic masculinity marginalizes non-normative masculinities, compelling boys to extreme measures to demonstrate dominance and avoid ostracization.
“His peers' taunts, rooted in homophobia, point to how hegemonic masculinity marginalizes non-normative masculinities (Connell and Messerschmidt 2005), compelling boys to extreme measures to demonstrate dominance and avoid ostracization.”
From Technology-facilitated sexual violence perpetration as a tool for gender policing in secondary schools (2026) · cites this paper as Connell and Messerschmidt 2005
In South Asian communities, men are expected to achieve personal and professional success as future family caretakers.
“Participants showed how gender and culture significantly shape disclosure, particularly in South Asian communities, where men are expected to achieve personal and professional success as future family caretakers [52].”
Fragile masculinity may represent a particularly salient contributor to men's psychological IPV perpetration.
“Given that boys and men are socialized across family, peer, institutional, and sociocultural contexts to equate masculinity with dominance and legitimized aggression (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005; O’Donnell et al., 2024), fragile masculinity may represent a particularly salient contributor to men’s psychological IPV perpetration.”
From Psychological Intimate Partner Violence Across Identities: Preliminary Psychometrics of the Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse-Short Form Among Heterosexual, Lesbian, and Bisexual Samples in Türkiye (2026) · cites this paper as Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005
Fear of cancer recurrence is associated with distress and reduced quality of life.
“which is associated with distress and reduced quality of life.11”
From Malignancy, masculinities, and psychological distress: Comparisons made between men with testicular cancer and healthy controls (2024) · cites this paper as [11]
In regions such as Cornwall, male-voice choirs acted as gatekeepers for local, White, working-class cultures during a period when ethnic diversity was otherwise increasing, in the same way they may have been complicit in fostering hegemonic masculinity.
“In the same way in which male-voice choirs may have been complicit in fostering hegemonic masculinity (cf.Connell & Messerschmidt 2005;Mackenzie et al. 2017), in regions such as Cornwall they also acted as gatekeepers for local, White, working-class cultures during a period when ethnic diversity was otherwise increasing.”
From ‘I don’t care who joins my choir’: Investigating attitudes to diversity and inclusivity in lower- and upper-voice choirs in the United Kingdom (2025) · cites this paper as Connell & Messerschmidt 2005
As Connell has contended there are different masculinities.
“As Connell has contended there are different masculinities [34].”
From Echoes of old HIV paradigms: reassessing the problem of engaging men in HIV testing and treatment through women’s perspectives (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
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- Authors
- Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W.
- Affiliations
- The University of Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern Maine (US)
- Venue
- Gender & Society
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2005-12
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 829-859
- ISSN
- 0891-2432 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-3977
- OpenAlex
- W2129749811
- Semantic Scholar
- 0f219ecc8bf348a2e16360666dfdeea21420231e
- Cited by
- 9,367
- References
- 133
- Citations by year
- 2026: 830 · 2025: 781 · 2024: 605 · 2023: 658 · 2022: 639 · 2021: 658 · 2020: 646 · 2019: 620 · 2018: 561 · 2017: 548 · 2016: 467 · 2015: 482 · 2014: 436 · 2013: 385 · 2012: 289
- FWCI
- 150.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- Locations
- Gender & Society (publishedVersion)
- Intellectum (Universidad de La Sabana) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender and Feminist Studies
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Sexuality, and Education
- Keywords
- hegemonic masculinity, masculinity, gender hierarchy, subordinated masculinities, multiple masculinities, hegemony, social reproduction, gender democracy, embodiment, women's agency, social change
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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