Activities and Programs That Improve Children’s Executive Functions
Open accessAbstract
Executive functions (EFs; e.g., reasoning, working memory, and self-control) can be improved. Good news indeed, since EFs are critical for school and job success and for mental and physical health. Various activities appear to improve children’s EFs. The best evidence exists for computer-based training, traditional martial arts, and two school curricula. Weaker evidence, though strong enough to pass peer review, exists for aerobics, yoga, mindfulness, and other school curricula. Here I address what can be learned from the research thus far, including that EFs need to be progressively challenged as children improve and that repeated practice is key. Children devote time and effort to activities they love; therefore, EF interventions might use children’s motivation to advantage. Focusing narrowly on EFs or aerobic activity alone appears not to be as efficacious in improving EFs as also addressing children’s emotional, social, and character development (as do martial arts, yoga, and curricula shown to improve EFs). Children with poorer EFs benefit more from training; hence, training might provide them an opportunity to “catch up” with their peers and not be left behind. Remaining questions include how long benefits of EF training last and who benefits most from which activities.
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The unity and diversity model proposes three interrelated but uniquely specific and separable executive function components: working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting.
“the unity and diversity model18— proposes that there are three interrelated but uniquely specific and separable executive function components: working memory, inhibitory control, and set shifting.9”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [18]
In “First, What Are EFs?” (page not provided), Diamond identifies three core executive functions: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. The passage supports the three-component list, with cognitive flexibility corresponding broadly to set shifting, but it does not describe the unity-and-diversity model or say the components are both interrelated and separable. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDeficits in one or more executive function components have been implicated theoretically and/or experimentally in many functional and behavioral outcomes relevant to ASD and/or ADHD, including organizational skills, planning, interference control, goal-maintenance, vigilance, response consistency, delay tolerance, academic achievement, learning behaviors, social skills, emotion regulation, on-task
“deficits in one or more of these executive function components have been implicated theoretically and/or experimentally in functional and behavioral outcomes relevant to ASD and/or ADHD, including difficulties with organizational skills,27 planning,18,27,28 interference control”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [18]
In “First, What Are EFs?” (page unavailable), Diamond identifies planning as a higher-order executive function and says early EF difficulties can persist; the section also links EFs broadly to school and social outcomes. The paper does not specifically establish that EF deficits cause organizational or planning difficulties in people with ASD or ADHD, or substantiate the full list of outcomes in the claim. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredCognitively-informed performance-based tests have demonstrated ecological validity through robust prediction of functional outcomes such as academic achievement, social functioning, attentive behavior, and organizational skills.
“These tests have also demonstrated ecological validity via robust prediction of important functional outcomes such as academic achievement, social functioning, attentive behavior, and organizational skills.18,26,27,38,58,131”
From Executive function deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [18]
The ‘General principles that apply to EF training’ section says executive functions predict school readiness and later academic performance, and ‘First, What Are EFs?’ links them to success in friendships. Neither passage establishes that the particular performance-based tests robustly predict those outcomes, attentive behavior, or organizational skills, or that the tests have demonstrated ecological validity. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAR-based feedback may be an effective means of motor learning and performance.
“The increasing amount of evidence implies that AR-based feedback may prove an effective means of motor learning and performance (AL-Sinani and Al Taher, 2023; Sattin et al., 2023; Diamond, 2012).”
From Real-time feedback enhances motor learning and motivation in youth team sports through augmented reality tools (2025) · cites this paper as Diamond, 2012
The section on computerized training discusses improvements in children’s working memory and reasoning, while the general principles section discusses practice and executive-function gains. Searches for AR-based feedback, augmented reality, and motor learning found no passage in our copy addressing whether AR feedback improves motor learning or performance. (LLM, conf=0.73)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredExisting brain training games require a level of computer literacy not routinely found among low-socioeconomic status children owing to low levels of exposure to computers.
“Unfortunately, existing games such as cognitive carnival or Caribbean quest [19] and other brain training games require a level of computer literacy not routinely found among low-socioeconomic status (SES) children owing to low levels of exposure to computers [12].”
Cognitive plasticity is considerable not only in children and adolescents, but also up to old age.
“The many studies investigating the benefits of cognitive training interventions showed that cognitive plasticity is considerable not only in children and adolescents, but also up to old age (for recent reviews, see Buitenweg et al., 2012; Diamond, 2012; Karbach and Schubert, 2013; Kray and Ferdinand, 2013; Strobach et al., 2014; Titz and Karbach, 2014; Verhaeghen, 2014).”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Diamond, 2012
Comprehensive reviews including training on different components of EF in samples of normally developing children have been focused on preschoolers.
“Comprehensive reviews including training on different components of EF in samples of normally developing children have been focused on preschoolers (e.g., Diamond, 2012; Zelazo and Lyons, 2012) and so far a systematic review of recent findings on EF training in middle childhood and adolescence is still missing.”
From Executive control training from middle childhood to adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Diamond, 2012
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References 52 · Cited by 750
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Diamond A Lee K 2011 See References Provides a review of a variety of approaches for improving EFs, with extensive details on studies in supplementary tables.
- Bialystok E Craik G Lifespan cognition: Mechanisms of change 2005 Oxford University Press New York, NY
- Moffitt TE Childhood self-control predicts adult health, wealth, and crime 1 Paper presented at the Multi-Disciplinary Symposium Improving the Well-Being of Children and Youth Copenhagen, Denmark 2012
- Authors
- Diamond, A.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Diamond, Adele
- ORCID
- Diamond, Adele
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-10
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 335-341
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- PMC
- PMC4200392
- OpenAlex
- W2121196365
- Cited by
- 750
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 65 · 2019: 71 · 2018: 82 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 44 · 2013: 19
- FWCI
- 50.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH071893)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA019685)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD035453)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- executive function, children, working memory, self-control, reasoning, computer-based training, martial arts, school curriculum, aerobics, yoga, mindfulness, motivation, emotional and social development, character development, exercise intensity, transfer of training
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