The DOI matches its Crossref record; 38 of the 38 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Miss. Diagnosis: A Systematic Review of ADHD in Adult Women
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: The aim of this review was to explore the impact of living with undiagnosed ADHD and adult diagnosis on women. METHOD: A systematic literature search was completed using three databases. Eight articles were considered relevant based on strict inclusion criteria. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the results of the articles. RESULTS: Four key themes emerged: Impacts on social-emotional wellbeing, Difficult relationships, Lack of control, and Self-acceptance after diagnosis. CONCLUSION: This knowledge can be used to advance the understanding of ADHD in adult women and the implications for late diagnosis in women.
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“We developed this female-specific treatment option in response to the dire need expressed by many [1,17,19,23,24,25,26,28,41,55,85], including patients.”
From A Female-Specific Treatment Group for ADHD—Description of the Programme and Qualitative Analysis of First Experiences (2024) · cites this paper as [17]
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“We decided on a group programme because of the importance of social difficulties for women with ADHD [10,17].”
From A Female-Specific Treatment Group for ADHD—Description of the Programme and Qualitative Analysis of First Experiences (2024) · cites this paper as [17]
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Cites
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Cited by
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Musullulu, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1466088 · Cited by 89
“In girls, on the other hand, internalized symptoms; more inwardness, shyness, and inattention are observed (Attoe and Climie, 2023).”
Exploring women’s experiences of diagnosis of ADHD in adulthood: a qualitative study
Morgan, J. (2023) · Advances in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/18387357.2023.2268756 · Cited by 78
“Furthermore, girls may be more likely, than males, to be misdiagnosed or have a late diagnosis because of the co-occurrence with mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety which are often treated fi rst (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Young et al., 2020).”
Craddock, E. (2024) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/10497323241253412 · Cited by 64
Neurodevelopmental Disorders Associated with Gut Microbiome Dysbiosis in Children
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“…as dyslexia, Attention De fi cit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and autism, and the application of these classi fi cation labels across varying contexts has shown a marked rise on a global scale, notable within the adult population (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Werkhoven et al., 2022; Wissell et al., 2021).”
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Diagnoses in Finland During the COVID-19 Pandemic
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Li, D., Miao, C., Wang, D., & Li, C. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.155 · Cited by 28
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Adverse experiences of women with undiagnosed ADHD and the invaluable role of diagnosis
Holden, E., & Kobayashi-Wood, H. E. H. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-04782-y · Cited by 24
“In both Attoe and Climie 35 and Holthe and Langvik 30 it seems evident that earlier diagnoses would likely have helped participants, but it was unclear what stages of their lives were most impacted, when the earlier diagnosis would have made the most difference, and what aspects of their negative…”
Elliott, J., Buchanan, K., & Bayes, S. (2024) · Women and Birth · doi:10.1016/j.wombi.2024.101825 · Cited by 13
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Zaleski, A. L., Craig, K. J. T., Khan, R., Waber, R., Xin, W., Powers, M., Ramey, U., Verbrugge, D. J., & Fernandez-Turner, D. (2025) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-025-13296-2 · Cited by 11
“Furthermore, significant disparities for historically marginalized groups on the basis of age, sex, gender, race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status exist across the care continuum [16] that are less likely to receive timely diagnosis and appropriate care [17–21].”
Wicherkiewicz, F., & Gambin, M. (2026) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06410-6 · Cited by 11
“…Disorder (ADHD) research has resulted in a significant gap in understanding this condition’s unique aspects in women, including their specific manifesta - tions, developmental trajectories, and the most effective assessment and treatment strategies (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Chronis-Tuscano, 2022).”
Rates of Depression in Children and Adolescents With ADHD: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Wang, S., Stewart, T. M., Ozen, I., Mukherjee, A., & Rhodes, S. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251341597 · Cited by 14
“…may stem from sex differences in ADHD symptoms, as females are more likely to show less hyperactivity/impulsive and disruptive behaviors, and more internalizing symptoms or eating disorders, which can lead to missed or delayed ADHD diagnosis in women and girls (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Quinn, 2008).”
de Jong, M., Wynchank, D. S. M. R., Michielsen, M., Beekman, A. T. F., & Kooij, J. J. S. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13072106 · Cited by 11
“Content: How ADHD symptoms differ in boys and girls [7,50–54], aetiology of ADHD, risk of a missed diagnosis [7,52] or misdiagnosis [55] in girls and women, ADHD in puberty [56,57], ensuing coping strategies such as masking [58] or socialisation [59], and the impact hereof in later life [17,28].”
BackgroundInfluentialBeyond Neurodiversity Lite: Improving the Robustness of Neurodiversity Employment Programs
Ezerins, M. E., Vogus, T. J., Follmer, E. H., & Simon, L. (2025) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.70039 · Cited by 9
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“These traits include: an understanding of ADHD (Ginapp et al., 2023), self-awareness (Becker et al., 2023; Miller, 2017), self-acceptance (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Beaton et al., 2022; Rasmussen et al., 2022), acceptance of disability (Botha & van der Westhuizen, 2023; Zapata & Worrell, 2023), and…”
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“…Kazda et al., 2021), and underdiagnosed – due to preferential diagnosis of some (e.g. children, boys) and not other (e.g. adults, women) subsets of the population, thus requiring more awareness efforts (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Faraone et al., 2024; Martin, 2024; Quinn, 2005; Young et al., 2020).”
ADHD in females: Survey findings on symptoms across hormonal life stages
Osianlis, E., Thomas, E. H. X., Li, Q., Bellgrove, M. A., May, T., Chapman, D., Kulkarni, J., & Gurvich, C. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.11.035 · Cited by 10
Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity symptoms and parental cognitions: a meta-analysis
Miklósi, M., Kovács, B., Janovicz, J., Lelki, F., & Kassai, R. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1321078 · Cited by 6
“In previous studies, gender differences have been reported in symptom presentation, prevalence, comorbid profile, and social perception of ADHD symptoms (121, 122).”
Gelner, H., Bagrowska, P., Jeronimus, B. F., Misiak, B., Samochowiec, J., & Gawęda, Ł. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13226727 · Cited by 7
“Moreover, the majority of the sample consisted of adult women, and the diagnostic criteria for ADHD are still not particularly effective in detecting ADHD in women [132].”
Solberg, B. S., Posserud, M.-B. R., Høberg, A., Instanes, J. T., Kvalvik, L. G., Austgulen, A., Khan, A. A., Lundervold, A. J., Halmøy, A., Gjestad, R., et al. (2025) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.70012 · Cited by 7
“Previous studies of children, youths, and adults have suggested that females face systematic barriers to obtaining an ADHD diagnosis (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Bussing et al., 2003; Meyer et al., 2020; Ohan & Visser, 2009; Young et al., 2020).”
InfluentialLife Gets Better: Important Resilience Factors When Growing Up With ADHD
Dangmann, C. R., Skogli, G. K. W., Holthe, M. E. G., Steffenak, A. K. M., & Andersen, P. N. (2024) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547241246645 · Cited by 13
“Men and women were equally represented in this study, but previous research has shown that they often have different experiences (Attoe & Climie, 2023), something which may be interesting to explore further.”
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ADHD and entrepreneurship: the role of perceived team conflict and gender on well-being
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“Similarly, women with ADHD experience bias stemming from the disorder’s traditional association with disruptive behaviors common in boys and men (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Faheem et al., 2022; Gaub & Carlson, 1997; Nussbaum, 2012; Walters, 2018).”
InfluentialVajsz, K., Paulina, L. R., Trejo, S., Andaverde-Vega, A. A., Swanson, J. M., & Miklósi, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1330716 · Cited by 6
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Issues Which Marginalize Females with ADHD - A Mixed Methods Systematic Review
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Embracing neurodiversity-informed dentistry. Part five: Diverse minds in the dental profession
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Paying Attention: Female ADHD Students Learning in Graduate School
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“In a systematic literature review, women with ADHD experienced low self-esteem; struggled with social relationships and emotional reactivity; and developed dysfunctional coping strategies (Attoe & Climie, 2023).”
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Wettstein, R., Navarro-Ovando, V., Pirgon, E., Kroesen, J., Wettstein, K., Kroesen, H., Mathôt, R. A. A., & Dumont, G. (2024) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547241273152 · Cited by 4
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“…in the context of ADHD include: an understanding of ADHD (Ginapp et al., 2023), self-awareness (Becker et al., 2023; Miller, 2017), self-acceptance (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Beaton et al., 2022; I. L. Rasmussen et al., 2022), acceptance of disability (Botha & van der Westhuizen, 2023; Zapata &…”
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“Furthermore, while autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder are more prevalent among male individuals, female individuals present with different symptoms, which has historically led to underdiagnosis 18,19 .”
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“35,38 By narrowing our focus to women with anxiety and depressive disorders, we aim to clarify how ADHD manifests in this subgroup and explore how gendered expressions of the disorder may in fl uence diagnosis.”
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“This study, like others, found that many participants had internalised these views and come to see themselves as being of fundamentally poor character — a bad person, rather than a good person with ADHD (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Young et al., 2008).”
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“These being: an understanding of ADHD (Ginapp et al., 2023), self-awareness (Becker et al., 2023; Miller, 2017), self-acceptance (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Beaton et al., 2022; Rasmussen et al., 2022), acceptance of disability (Botha & van der Westhuizen, 2023; Zapata & Worrell, 2023), self-compassion…”
Stephenson, P., Durand, M., Humphreys, M., & Stewart, A. (2025) · BJPsych Bulletin · doi:10.1192/bjb.2025.35 · Cited by 2
“28 Alternatively, people without additional disease burden may be better able to contain ADHD symptoms; they may place less value on input from a specialist ADHD service.”
Mentalisation, Self-Compassion, and the Psychosocial Impact of ADHD in Adult Women
Witteveen, K., & O’Hara, D. (2025) · Psychotherapy and Counselling Journal of Australia · doi:10.59158/001c.141060 · Cited by 4
Innovative design and modelling to improve sex and gender analysis in clinical trials
Peters, S. A. E., Graham, B. M., Berwanger, O. B., Harris, K., Woodward, M., & Hirst, J. E. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2025-085681 · Cited by 2
Executive Dysfunction and Anxiety in Adolescent Females with ADHD: A Study of Arab Israeli Students
Ghanamah, R., & Khaldi-Mreh, J. (2025) · Disabilities · doi:10.3390/disabilities5040091 · Cited by 2
“While research has traditionally focused on males, females with ADHD frequently exhibit internalizing symptoms, such as anxiety and emotional dysregulation, rather than hyperactivity or impulsivity [11–13].”
Harvey, A., Moreau, C. A., Kumar, K., Huguet, G., Urchs, S. G. W., Sharmarke, H., Jizi, K., Martin, C.-O., Younis, N., Tamer, P., et al. (2024) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag_a_00222 · Cited by 3
“It is well known that certain conditions (particularly ASD, ADHD, and SZ) are underrepresented among females, which reflects differences in understanding and diagnosing as well as prevalence ( Attoe & Climie, 2023; Bierer et al., 2022; X. Li et al., 2022; Loomes et al., 2017; Pedersen et al., 2022).”
BackgroundFemale athletes with ADHD: time to level the playing field
Collins, K. (2024) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsports-2024-108068 · Cited by 2
Probability of change in diagnosis among adult patients diagnosed with childhood mental disorders
Gazizullin, T. R., & Mendelevich, В. D. (2023) · Neurology Bulletin · doi:10.17816/nb340868 · Cited by 1
Embracing Neurodivergence: Essential considerations in family law practice
Cottingham, M., & Spear, T. (2024) · Family Court Review · doi:10.1111/fcre.12840 · Cited by 1
Dancing Hands: On Neurodivergent Embodied Knowledge
Püschel, A. (2025) · Social Inclusion · doi:10.17645/si.9089 · Cited by 1
MacLean, B., Buissink, P., Louw, V. J., Chen, W., & Richards, T. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17050785 · Cited by 1
“As a systemically underappreciated condition in women [8], we wished to further explore the presentation of ADHD symptoms in women and to explore whether HMB and iron deficiency could play a role in symptom development.”
InfluentialJensen-Fogt, T., & Pedersen, C. L. (2025) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2025.2489771 · Cited by 2
The Significance of Labels: From Shy and Lazy to Autistic and ADHD
Bechsgaard, K. K. (2025) · Ought The Journal of Autistic Culture · doi:10.9707/2833-1508.1221 · Cited by 1
“Being in my Own Skin”: Exploring the Experiences of Indian Women with ADHD
Nagar, I., Gupta, K., Batra, S., & Chauhan, D. (2025) · Neurodiversity · doi:10.1177/27546330251355813 · Cited by 4
Ali, D. A., Hale, E. W., Ascencio, A., & Berkowitz, S. J. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.08.002 · Cited by 1
Tabibi, Z., Ayoubi, S., & Rabbaniparsa, E. (2025) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-025-01899-z · Cited by 1
Çankaya, P. K. (2025) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1719949 · Cited by 1
Winogrodzki, I., Trzciński, B., Kowalczyk, P., Gugała, O., Stryczek-Schlusche, A., Furczyńska, A. M., Bracichowicz, F., Gęsińska, A., Paszkiewicz, H., & Nowak, K. (2025) · International Journal of Innovative Technologies in Social Science · doi:10.31435/ijitss.3(47).2025.3606 · Cited by 1
Carr‐Fanning, K., Lynam, A., Nicholson, T., & Guckin, C. M. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15101045 · Cited by 1
Maternal ADHD Diagnoses Before and After Childbirth: A Danish Population-Based Cohort Study
Madsen, K. B., Winther, M., Jensen, A. T., Marcussen, K., Munk‐Olsen, T., Wesselhoeft, R. T., & Kittel‐Schneider, S. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251372730 · Cited by 2
“Late diagnosis is associated with diminished self-esteem, significant mental health challenges, disruptions in personal identity, and reduced life opportunities (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Skoglund et al., 2024; Young et al., 2020).”
Zhu, H. '., Kumar, A. S., Zhao, S., Wang, R., Tong, X., & Zhao, Y. (2025) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) · doi:10.1145/3663547.3746387 · Cited by 3
“We identified a gap between prior work that qualitatively examined ADHD communities and that quantitatively evaluated ADHD video qualities via a medical lens on VSPs. Qualitative examination of ADHD communities on VSPs has focused on understanding community building and advocacy on VSPs, and didn’t…”
Zaritsky, R., Reed, S. C., & Evans, S. M. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251400038 · Cited by 2
“Nonetheless, it is well-established that females with ADHD have significant impairment in various life domains, including career, home and family life, as well as social problems (Attoe & Climie, 2023; Cortese et al., 2016; Fedele et al., 2012; Young et al., 2020).”
Shim, J. K., Lee, S. I., Kim, S.-G., Ko, Y., Youn, H., & Lee, J. (2026) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2025.0283 · Cited by 3
“14 Therefore, when evaluating adults who present with depression, anxiety, or interpersonal problems, clinicians should routinely assess for underlying ADHD, as appropriate diagnosis and treatment of ADHD can substantially improve both core symptoms and associated functional or emotional…”
Yeh, T., Hsu, C.-W., Tsai, S., Bai, Y., Su, T., Chen, T.-J., Liang, C., Chen, M., & Hsu, T. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2026.121505 · Cited by 1
Alarachi, A., McNeely, H. E., Rowa, K., & McCabe, R. E. (2026) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.70048 · Cited by 2
“One of these factors included identifying as a woman, which has been repeatedly cited in the literature as being associated with a missed diagnosis of ADHD (e.g., Attoe & Climie, 2023; Huynh et al., 2024).”
Hoare, E., Harrison, M., Timperley, S., Riordan, J., Rowlings, J., Hedley, D., Brown, C. M., Bennett, B., John, T., Upward, K., et al. (2026) · Neurodiversity · doi:10.1177/27546330261464728 · Cited by 1
Absence of funding for pharmacotherapy for adults with ADHD in Poland
Pankowski, D., & Wytrychiewicz‐Pankowska, K. (2024) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(24)00110-x · Cited by 1
Binge, Purge, and Wander: Navigating Bulimia and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Jeremias, D., Santana, L., Braga, F., Mesquita, B., & Santos, C. P. (2024) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.69076 · Cited by 1
Not just a simple diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Joshi, M. M., & Callins, K. R. (2024) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2024.11.004 · Cited by 1
Kugler, M. (2025) · Career Development International · doi:10.1108/cdi-04-2025-0165 · Cited by 1
Fried, D. (2025) · Canadian Journal of Art Therapy · doi:10.1080/26907240.2025.2550818 · Cited by 1
ADHD medications: a descriptive study of prescription trends in Tabriz, Iran, 2021-2022Preprint
Fakhari, A., Farahbakhsh, M., Azimian, A., Khameneh, A., Matinkia, M., & Aghajani, E. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4924259/v1 · Cited by 1
Harvey, A., Moreau, C. A., Kumar, K., Guillaumeaf, Urchs, S. G. W., Sharmarke, H., Jizi, K., Martin, C.-O., Younis, N., Tamer, P., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/srmx7
Meijs, H. (2024) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20240618hm
Epidemiology of Mental Health Conditions in Older Adult Women
Webb, F. J., Swagger, P., & Webster-Bass, S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-58293-6_4 · Cited by 1
Perspectives on Assessment Tools for Evaluating Students With ADHD During Career Transitioning
(2024) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-2635-0.ch007
郝, 丽. (2025) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2025.154255
The importance of gender and age for symptoms and epidemiology of ADHD
Hoff, A., & Speyer, H. (2025) · Ugeskrift for Læger · doi:10.61409/v11240761
Metadata
- Authors
- Attoe, D. E., & Climie, E. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Climie, Emma A.
- Venue
- Journal of Attention Disorders
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2023-03-30
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 645-657
- ISSN
- 1087-0547 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-1246
- PMC
- PMC10173330
- OpenAlex
- W4361270904
- Cited by
- 173
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 63 · 2025: 73 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 6
- FWCI
- 7.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Attention Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychology and Mental Health
- Keywords
- adult ADHD, women, undiagnosed ADHD, delayed diagnosis, social and emotional wellbeing, interpersonal relationships, self-acceptance, lack of control, quality of life
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Emotions, Female, Humans
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