Deny, Distance, or Dismantle? How White Americans Manage a Privileged Identity
Open accessAbstract
Social scientists have traditionally argued that whiteness-the attribute of being recognized and treated as a White person in society-is powerful because it is invisible. On this view, members of the racially dominant group have the unique luxury of rarely noticing their race or the privileges it confers. This article challenges this "invisibility thesis," arguing that Whites frequently regard themselves as racial actors. We further argue that whiteness defines a problematic social identity that confronts Whites with 2 psychological threats: the possibility that their accomplishments in life were not fully earned (meritocratic threat) and the association with a group that benefits from unfair social advantages (group-image threat). We theorize that Whites manage their racial identity to dispel these threats. According to our deny, distance, or dismantle (3D) model of White identity management, dominant-group members have three strategies at their disposal: deny the existence of privilege, distance their own self-concepts from the White category, or strive to dismantle systems of privilege. Whereas denial and distancing promote insensitivity and inaction with respect to racial inequality, dismantling reduces threat by relinquishing privileges. We suggest that interventions aimed at reducing inequality should attempt to leverage dismantling as a strategy of White identity management.
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White youth are socialized into a society that rewards both whiteness and silence on whiteness-denial about, ignorance of, and self‐distancing from the racist status quo.
“White youth are socialized into a society that rewards both whiteness and silence on whiteness—denial about, ignorance of, and self‐distancing from the racist status quo (Knowles et al., 2014; Spanierman & Cabrera, 2014).”
From Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context (2022) · cites this paper as Knowles et al., 2014
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Weiss‐Klayman, N., Hameiri, B., & Halperin, E. (2020) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12651 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Scale dichotomization reduces customer racial discrimination and income inequality
Botelho, T. L., Jun, S., Humes, D., & DeCelles, K. A. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-025-08599-7 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Allidina, S., & Cunningham, W. A. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683231172255 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Members of dominant groups can react in a variety of ways to their privilege, such as by denying the existence of their privilege, distancing themselves from the privileged group, or working to dismantle systems of oppres-sion (Knowles et al., 2014; Leach et al., 2009).”
Greenland, K., West, K., & van Laar, C. (2022) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12902 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Vollhardt, J. R., Ünal, H., & Nair, R. (2022) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12554 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
An Integrative Model for the Development of Anti-Racist Behavior in White Adolescents
Woolverton, G. A., & Marks, A. K. (2022) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/07435584221091492 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“White adolescents who hold color-blind views may also not identify as racial or may distance themselves from being white (Knowles et al., 2014).”
BackgroundRace, politics, and perceptions of anti-Black and anti-White discrimination over time
Peacock, N., & Biernat, M. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302211040107 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Pointing out White privilege threatens meritocratic beliefs and groupbased morality, and denying that one has racial privilege is one of the strategies White people use to dispel those threats (Knowles et al., 2014).”
BackgroundTyler, K. M., Stevens-Watkins, D. J., Burris, J. L., Fisher, S. D., & Hargons, C. N. (2021) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984211034948 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“White privilege is granted without recognition or permission and exists even when White people seek to deny, distance, or dis-identify with being White (Leonardo, 2009; Knowles et al., 2014; Phillips & Lowery, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialDerricks, V. S., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2021) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/03616843211005447 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“, 1999) or on long-standing differences in social privilege and disadvantage that favor Whites (Knowles et al., 2014; Unzueta & Lowery, 2008).”
BackgroundHigh Power Mindsets Reduce Gender Identification and Benevolent Sexism Among Women (But Not Men)
Vial, A. C., & Napier, J. L. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.06.012 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Wiley, S., Park, J. W., & Catalina, N. (2023) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302231162042 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Existing research and theory also demonstrate that advantaged group members employ privilege denial as a strategy to defend against threats to their (moral) reputation and self-worth (Knowles et al., 2014; Phillips & Lowery, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialDover, T. L. (2022) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302211018741 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Several research programs have demonstrated that members of privileged groups are averse to thinking about their unearned advantages (Branscombe, 1998; Knowles et al., 2014; Powell et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialWalker, J., & Gilovich, T. (2020) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000256 · Cited by 15
Color-Blind and Multicultural Strategies in Medical Settings
West, T. V., & Schoenthaler, A. M. (2017) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12029 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
European Americans' intentions to confront racial bias: Considering who, what (kind), and why
Brown, R. M., Craig, M. A., & Apfelbaum, E. P. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104123 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Kteily, N., & McClanahan, K. J. (2019) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.06.030 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Marshburn, C. K., & Knowles, E. D. (2017) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430216681178 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Although a form of identity distancing (Knowles et al., 2014), this process entails altering one’s explicit beliefs about ingroup identity and is distinct from thought suppression.”
BackgroundSelf-citationPerceptions of the social status hierarchy and its cultural and economic sources
Breyer, M. (2024) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12712 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“It is not surprising that high-status groups agree with or at least acknowledge the sources of the current status hierarchy, even though this acknowledgement can also motivate them to deny or distance themselves from profiting from inequality (Knowles et al., 2014).”
Wilton, L. S., Sullivan, J. L., Albuja, A. F., & Perry, S. (2023) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12098 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Vine, M., & Greenwood, R. M. (2021) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12563 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“At the same time, use of such strategies may also block transformational solidarity work that requires honest conversations about power asymmetries (Knowles et al., 2014).”
BackgroundHeterosexual Identity Management: How Social Context Affects Heterosexual Marking Practices
Davis‐Delano, L. R., & Morgan, E. M. (2016) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2016.1229611 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Thus, we are able to illustrate through our findings that an unequal social context can affect not only subordinate identity management practices but also dominant identity management practices (e.g., Knowles et al., 2014).”
BackgroundMosley, A. J., Biernat, M., & Adams, G. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2023.104487 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Preston, M. C. (2025) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2023.1421 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Diversity Discourse as Racialized and Double-edged: Findings from a National Survey
Rajasekar, N., Aguilar-Champeau, M., & Hartmann, D. (2022) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/23326492221078303 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…racial inequality, and opinions about racebased policy; findings often show that racial attitudes and racial identity are associated with how participants respond to different items about diversity (e.g., Bauman, Trawalter, and Unzueta 2014; Knowles et al. 2014; Unzueta, Knowles, and Ho 2012).”
Background
- Authors
- Knowles, E. D., Lowery, B. S., Chow, R. M., & Unzueta, M. M.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2014-11
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 594-609
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- OpenAlex
- W2144841272
- Cited by
- 340
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 18.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- papers.ssrn.com
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
- Keywords
- whiteness, White Americans, privilege, denial, distancing, dismantling, racial inequality, anti-racism interventions, dominant group members
- MeSH terms
- Awareness, Humans, Models, Psychological, Race Relations, Self Concept, Social Identification, United States, White People
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