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Political Extremism Predicts Belief in Conspiracy Theories
Abstract
Historical records suggest that the political extremes—at both the “left” and the “right”—substantially endorsed conspiracy beliefs about other-minded groups. The present contribution empirically tests whether extreme political ideologies, at either side of the political spectrum, are positively associated with an increased tendency to believe in conspiracy theories. Four studies conducted in the United States and the Netherlands revealed a quadratic relationship between strength of political ideology and conspiracy beliefs about various political issues. Moreover, participants’ belief in simple political solutions to societal problems mediated conspiracy beliefs among both left- and right-wing extremists. Finally, the effects described here were not attributable to general attitude extremity. Our conclusion is that political extremism and conspiracy beliefs are strongly associated due to a highly structured thinking style that is aimed at making sense of societal events.
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“Various authors noted that the crippled epistemology that characterizes political extremism is also inherent to conspiracy beliefs (Sunstein & Vermeule, 2009; Swami et al., 2013).”
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“Political dimensions of conspiracy beliefs in COVID-19 Political extremists believe conspiracy theories resulting from their opponents’ hidden plots (Van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
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“Van Prooijen et al. (2015) found that conspiracy beliefs were associated with extremist political beliefs at either side of the political spectrum (i.”
Is democracy under threat? Why belief in conspiracy theories predicts autocratic attitudes
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“Others argue that conspiracy beliefs are strongest amongst both extreme ends of the ideological spectrum, expressed to a similar extent by extreme right- and left-wing ideologues (van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
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The Influence of Political Ideology on Fake News Belief: The Portuguese Case
Baptista, J. P., Correia, E., Gradim, A., & Piñeiro-Naval, V. (2021) · Publications · doi:10.3390/publications9020023 · Cited by 58
“Conservatives are also, in general, more susceptible to conspiracy theories, which is a very close genre of fake news that has also been studied [114,115].”
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Why Do People Discriminate against Jews?
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“The proliferation of extremist websites o ff ering disinformation and conspi-racy theories (Van Prooijen, Krouwel, and Pollet 2015) can be considered as evidence of the current polarisation and fragmentation of political discourse (Haller and Holt 2019).”
BackgroundJust world beliefs, personal success and beliefs in conspiracy theories
Furnham, A. F. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01576-z · Cited by 44
Conspiracy theories and reasonable pluralism
Cíbik, M., & Hardoš, P. (2020) · European Journal of Political Theory · doi:10.1177/1474885119899232 · Cited by 42
“…climate science denialism (Uscinski et al., 2017), lowers people’s willingness to engage in politics (Jolley and Douglas, 2014a; Uscinski and Parent, 2014), is associated with political extremism (Van Prooijen et al., 2015) and relates to the rise of populist politics (Castanho Silva et al., 2017).”
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“Most previous studies found that political extremism rather than simple left-right classification is a better predictor (e.g., van Prooijen et al., 2015), or found the association to be dependent on the content of the particular conspiracy belief (e.g., pro vs. anti-establishment conspiracy…”
BackgroundExplaining Conspiracy Beliefs and Scepticism around the COVID‐19 Pandemic
Gemenis, K. (2021) · Swiss Political Science Review · doi:10.1111/spsr.12467 · Cited by 41
“In this line of reasoning, researchers often argue that political extremism (Van Prooijen et al. 2015) and right-wing ideology (Walter and Drochon 2020) serve as good predictors of beliefs on various conspiracy theories.”
BackgroundConspiracy Beliefs, Misinformation, Social Media Platforms, and Protest Participation
Boulianne, S., & Lee, S. (2022) · Media and Communication · doi:10.17645/mac.v10i4.5667 · Cited by 37
“That is because misinformation and/or conspiracy theories tend to be endorsed by right‐wingers (Douglas et al., 2015; van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMemes, humor, and the far right’s strategic mainstreaming
Schmid, U. K., Schulze, H., & Drexel, A. (2024) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2024.2329610 · Cited by 41
“Conspiracy narratives are a key component of far-right online communication (Schulze et al., 2022), and attitudinally, susceptibility to conspiracy beliefs has been linked to political extremism (van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
Đorđević, J., Žeželj, I., & Đurić, Ž. (2021) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.5609 · Cited by 29
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van Prooijen, J. (2021) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-021-00376-x · Cited by 48
The History of Conspiracy Theory Research
Bütter, M., & Knight, P. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0002 · Cited by 47
Emotion dysregulation and belief in conspiracy theories
Molenda, Z., Green, R., Marchlewska, M., Cichocka, A., & Douglas, K. M. (2023) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.112042 · Cited by 38
Alternative media framing of COVID-19 risks
Rooke, M. (2021) · Current Sociology · doi:10.1177/00113921211006115 · Cited by 40
Winter, T. J., Riordan, B. C., Scarf, D., & Jose, P. E. (2022) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.01.039 · Cited by 46
“Conspiracy beliefs seem to typically arise and prosper at both the extreme left and right ends of the political spectrum [31,35].”
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“Support for the generality of this pattern is provided by prepandemic research that suggests that extreme ideology, irrespective of orientation, is a predictor of conspiratorial thinking (van Prooijen, krouwel, and Pollet 2015).”
BackgroundConspiracy beliefs and the impact on health behaviors
Kroke, A. M., & Ruthig, J. C. (2021) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12304 · Cited by 38
Overclaiming Knowledge Predicts Anti-establishment Voting
van Prooijen, J., & Krouwel, A. P. M. (2019) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550619862260 · Cited by 38
Self-citationMarone, F. (2021) · Security Journal · doi:10.1057/s41284-020-00274-y · Cited by 37
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Empowerment as a Tool to Reduce Belief in Conspiracy Theories
van Prooijen, J. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0030 · Cited by 37
Do as the Romans do: On the authoritarian roots of pseudoscience
Fasce, A., Adrián‐Ventura, J., & Avendaño, D. (2020) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/0963662520935078 · Cited by 42
Education for Democratic Tolerance, Respect and the Limits of Political Liberalism
Drerup, J. (2019) · Journal of Philosophy of Education · doi:10.1111/1467-9752.12337 · Cited by 36
Political Preferences, Knowledge, and Misinformation About COVID-19: The Case of Brazil
Gramacho, W. G., Turgeon, M., Kennedy, J., Stabile, M., & Mundim, P. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2021.646430 · Cited by 41
Conspiracy Theories and Philosophy
Dentith, M. R. X. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0006 · Cited by 38
DiFonzo, N. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0017 · Cited by 34
Group-oriented motivations underlying conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J. (2024) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302241240696 · Cited by 35
“…have observed stronger conspiracy beliefs at both the left and right extremes of the political spectrum (Krouwel et al., 2017; Nera et al., 2021; van Prooijen et al., 2015), although some studies have observed stronger conspiracy beliefs mostly at the far-right (van der Linden et al., 2021).”
How political ideology drives anti-consumption manifestations
Pecot, F., Vasilopoulou, S., & Cavallaro, M. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.01.062 · Cited by 35
Hornsey, M. J., Edwards, M. R., Lobera, J., Díaz‐Catalán, C., & Barlow, F. K. (2021) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12500 · Cited by 41
Conspiracy beliefs and attitudes toward COVID-19 vaccinations
Pivetti, M., Battista, S. D., Paleari, F. G., & Hakoköngäs, E. J. (2021) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909211039893 · Cited by 39
“For instance, some studies have revealed that extreme political (left or right) orientations were associated with the endorsement of conspiracy beliefs (Krouwel et al., 2017; van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundConspiracy theories on Twitter: emerging motifs and temporal dynamics during the COVID-19 pandemic
Batzdorfer, V., Steinmetz, H., Biella, M., & Alizadeh, M. (2022) · International Journal of Data Science and Analytics · doi:10.1007/s41060-021-00298-6 · Cited by 38
“Topics have been likewise diverse, ranging from overall theoretical discussions [22, 23], anti-science CTs, often discussed with the example of anti-climate change CTs [24–26] or anti-vaccination CTs [27–29], and the role of demographic predictors [20, 30], political predictors, such as political orientation [31, 32],…”
BackgroundThe complex relationship between conspiracy belief and the politics of social change
Federico, C. M. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101354 · Cited by 34
The impact of social desirability bias on conspiracy belief measurement across cultures
Smallpage, S., Enders, A., Drochon, H., & Uscinski, J. E. (2022) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2022.1 · Cited by 28
Jahn, D. (2021) · Journal of European Public Policy · doi:10.1080/13501763.2021.1918215 · Cited by 38
“Populist parties use an expressive rhetoric, and they challenge established knowledge by engaging in post-factual communication and even refer to conspiracy theory (van Prooijen et al., 2015; see also Huber et al., 2021).”
BackgroundKende, A., Lantos, N. A., & Krekó, P. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01402 · Cited by 32
“…al., 2017), and explained by right-wing authoritarianism (RWA, Altemeyer, 1988), the role of psychological distress and experience of threat (e.g., Canetti-Nisim et al., 2009), and bias in social cognition, such as processing of fake news and information on conspiracies (Van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
Conspiratorial Thinking and Dueling Fact Perceptions
Marietta, M., & Barker, D. C. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0014 · Cited by 32
Strömbäck, J., Broda, E., Bouchafra, S., Johansson, S., Rettenegger, G., & Lindgren, E. (2022) · European Journal of Communication · doi:10.1177/02673231221122951 · Cited by 47
“In general, groups that are characterized by a strong ingroup identity and a perceived threat from an outgroup are more likely to hold conspiracy beliefs (Cichocka et al., 2016; Jolley et al., 2018; Van Prooijen and Douglas, 2018).”
ResultInfluentialLOCO: The 88-million-word language of conspiracy corpus
Miani, A., Hills, T. T., & Bangerter, A. (2021) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-021-01698-z · Cited by 36
“…of known links between partisanship polarization and echo chambers (Stroud, 2010), confirmation bias (Westen et al., 2006), and belief in CTs (van Prooijen et al., 2015) we explored whether politically polarized websites (on both left and right sides of the spectrum) show patterns comparable…”
BackgroundIs the label ‘conspiracy theory’ a cause or a consequence of disbelief in alternative narratives?
Douglas, K. M., van Prooijen, J., & Sutton, R. M. (2021) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12548 · Cited by 32
Howard, M. C., & Davis, M. M. (2022) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053221096013 · Cited by 32
“…instance, political norms (system-level) may influence conspiracy beliefs and vaccine hesitancy (patient-level) to ultimately influence vaccination behaviors, which can advance prior research linking political affiliation to conspiracy beliefs (van Prooijen et al., 2015; Vitriol and Marsh, 2018).”
ResultRekker, R., & Harteveld, E. (2024) · Acta Politica · doi:10.1057/s41269-022-00265-4 · Cited by 32
“Instead, most research has focused on more extreme instances of misinformation and misperceptions such as conspiracy theories (e.g., Van Prooijen et al. 2015).”
Mari, S., Volpato, C., Παπαστάμου, Σ., Chryssochoou, X., Prodromitis, G., & Pavlopoulos, V. (2017) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.95 · Cited by 32
Lamberty, P., Hellmann, J. H., & Oeberst, A. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.033 · Cited by 28
Stewart, B. D., Gulzaib, F., & Morris, D. S. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01236 · Cited by 30
“In newer research, van Prooijen et al. (2015) have observed that people on the left and right political extremes showed more derogation of immigrants and more derogation of societal groups in general than did political moderates, however, their research tested attitudes to multiple societal groups…”
BackgroundMethodResultMaertens, R., Götz, F. M., Golino, H. F., Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Kyrychenko, Y., Kerr, J. R., Stieger, S., McClanahan, W. P., III, Drabot, K., et al. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gk68h · Cited by 31
Education, epistemic virtues, and the power of toleration
Drerup, J. (2019) · Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy · doi:10.1080/13698230.2019.1616883 · Cited by 30
Chapelan, A. (2021) · Journal of Transatlantic Studies · doi:10.1057/s42738-021-00073-2 · Cited by 30
Towards a fruitful concept of radicalisation: a synthesis
Peels, R. (2023) · Journal of Contemporary European Studies · doi:10.1080/14782804.2023.2185594 · Cited by 30
“Research shows, for instance, that extremism is a good predictor for conspiracy theorizing (Van Prooijen, Krouwel, and Pollet 2015).”
BackgroundRäikkä, J., & Basham, L. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0011 · Cited by 32
“Is It the Message or the Messenger?”: Conspiracy Endorsement and Media Sources
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Christner, C. (2022) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.7969 · Cited by 30
“…72–85 https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.7969 studies link belief in conspiracy theories to right-wing political ideology (e.g., Galliford & Furnham, 2017), others show that this relation is present both on the right and on the left, especially on the political extremes (e.g., van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialPsychometric assessments of Persian translations of three measures of conspiracist beliefs
Atari, M., Afhami, R., & Swami, V. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215202 · Cited by 32
Wheeler, N., Allidina, S., Long, E. U., Schneider, S. P., Haas, I. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2020) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.05.002 · Cited by 36
Luo, X., & Jia, H. (2021) · Chinese Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/17544750.2021.1954963 · Cited by 29
“Previous studies have found that political extremists, on the left or right, were more likely to believe in conspiracy theories than moderates (Van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
BackgroundLee, J., Kanthawala, S., Britt, B., Deavours, D. F., & Ott-Fulmore, T. (2021) · Online Information Review · doi:10.1108/oir-03-2021-0121 · Cited by 32
Conspiracy Theories in Post-Soviet Russia
Yablokov, I. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0024 · Cited by 33
Polls, Plots, and Party Politics
Enders, A. M., & Smallpage, S. M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0020 · Cited by 28
Persistent beliefs: Political extremism predicts ideological stability over time
Zwicker, M. V., van Prooijen, J., & Krouwel, A. P. M. (2020) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220917753 · Cited by 37
Self-citationThe Psychological Appeal of Fake-News Attributions
Axt, J. R., Landau, M. J., & Kay, A. C. (2020) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620922785 · Cited by 28
(2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0001 · Cited by 29
QAnon shifts into the mainstream, remains a far-right ally
Zihiri, S., Lima, G., Han, J., Cha, M., & Lee, W. (2022) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08764 · Cited by 26
“is an open access article under t across the political spectrum, with members of both the political far-right and far-left being most susceptible to these theories [4].”
BackgroundThe Collective Conspiracy Mentality in Poland
Soral, W., Cichocka, A. K., Bilewicz, M., & Marchlewska, M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0025 · Cited by 30
The conspiratorial style in lay economic thinking
Leiser, D., Duani, N., & Wagner-Egger, P. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171238 · Cited by 24
The stock market is rigged? Conspiracy beliefs and distrust predict lower stock market participation
Fiagbenu, M. E. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3981 · Cited by 27
Szebeni, Z., Lönnqvist, J.-E., & Jasinskaja-Lahti, I. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790848 · Cited by 22
“This is in line with previous research suggesting that conspiracy mentality is not confined to a certain political ideology but can be more common on the extremes of the political spectrum (e.g., van Prooijen et al., 2015).”
Resultde Oliveira, T. M., Wang, Z., & Xu, J. (2022) · Online Media and Global Communication · doi:10.1515/omgc-2022-0005 · Cited by 25
“Conspiracy theories have long been understood to be irrational narratives produced by extremist social groups on the edges of political and social life (Warner and Neville-Shepard 2014; Van Prooijen et al. 2015).”
BackgroundTang, R., Vraga, E. K., Bode, L., & Boulianne, S. (2024) · Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review · doi:10.37016/mr-2020-145 · Cited by 24
“However, given political extremists are more prone to believing in conspiracy theories (van Prooijen et al., 2015), the corrections they reported might be based on unfounded or misleading information, which means some of the “corrections” could be misguided or inaccurate.”
BackgroundSensemaking and the Chemtrail Conspiracy on the Internet: Insights from Believers and Ex-believers
Xiao, S., Cheshire, C., & Bruckman, A. S. (2021) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3479598 · Cited by 27
Erişen, C. (2022) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/01925121221084625 · Cited by 24
Does Belief in Conspiracy Theories Affect Interpersonal Relationships?
Toribio‐Flórez, D., Green, R., Sutton, R. M., & Douglas, K. M. (2023) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2023.8 · Cited by 24
“Additionally, conspiracy beliefs are more frequent among the political extremes (Alper & Imhoff, 2022; Imhoff et al., 2022; van Prooijen et al., 2015), which highlights their potential contribution to the polarization of political attitudes.”
BackgroundHow Ambient Cues Facilitate Political Segregation
Motyl, M. S., Prims, J., & Iyer, R. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167219875141 · Cited by 23
How Conspiracy Theories Spread
DeWitt, D., Atkinson, M., & Wegner, D. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0021 · Cited by 24
Evidence of decreased system justification among extreme conservatives in non-American samples
Caricati, L. (2019) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2019.1567455 · Cited by 30
“…consistent with previous studies demonstrating that that political extremism increases susceptibility to conspiracy beliefs (Krouwel et al., 2017; van Prooijen et al., 2015), negative evaluation of the economy (Krouwel et al., 2017) and negative emotions about politics (van Prooijen et al.,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWhite America, threat to the status quo, and affiliation with the alt-right: a qualitative approach
Isom, D. A., Mikell, T. C., & Boehme, H. M. (2021) · Sociological Spectrum · doi:10.1080/02732173.2021.1885531 · Cited by 26
“While some research has found far-left movements to be less violent (Lafree et al. 2018), there are similarities between the structured nature of beliefs systems of both sides of the political spectrum (Van Prooijen, Krouwel, and Pollet 2015).”
BackgroundLeveaux, S., Nera, K., Fagnoni, P., & Klein, P. (2022) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.6201 · Cited by 22
Nera, K., Leveaux, S., & Klein, P. (2020) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.401 · Cited by 19
“…contextual (e.g., crisis situations, van Prooijen & Douglas, 2017), ideological (e.g., holding an extreme political orientation, Krouwel et al., 2017; van Prooijen et al, 2015), and sociodemographic factors (e.g., being member of a disempowered group, Crocker et al., 1999; Uscinski & Parent, 2014).”
BackgroundDeschrijver, C. (2021) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2021.02.010 · Cited by 22
Ladini, R. (2021) · Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica · doi:10.1017/ipo.2021.15 · Cited by 22
Wagner-Egger, P., Adam-Troian, J., Cordonier, L., Cafiero, F., & Bronner, G. (2022) · International Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.5334/irsp.556 · Cited by 20
Injecting disinformation into public space: pseudo-media and reality-altering narratives
Palau-Sampio, D., & Carratalá, A. (2022) · El Profesional de la Informacion · doi:10.3145/epi.2022.may.12 · Cited by 22
Mindsets of conspiracy: A typology of affinities towards conspiracy myths in digital environments
Schwaiger, L., Schneider, J., Rauchfleisch, A., & Eisenegger, M. (2022) · Convergence The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies · doi:10.1177/13548565221106427 · Cited by 31
“…Wuttke et al., 2020), science skepticism (e.g. Uscinski et al., 2017; Hameleers and Van der Meer, 2021), far-right attitudes (e.g. Cosentino, 2020; Hameleers, 2021), far-left attitudes (e.g. Drochon, 2018; van Prooijen et al., 2015), and criticism of the system as a whole (Imhoff et al., 2020).”
What We Mean When We Say “Conspiracy Theory”
Walker, J. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0003 · Cited by 23
Conspiracy Theories and Religion
Robertson, D. G. C., & Dyrendal, A. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0028 · Cited by 21
Georgiou, N., Delfabbro, P., & Balzan, R. P. (2021) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2021.1924650 · Cited by 21
Salvati, M., Giacomantonio, M., Pellegrini, V., Cristofaro, V. D., & Leone, L. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103508 · Cited by 28
Political tolerance in Europe: The role of conspiratorial thinking and cosmopolitanism
Stoeckel, F., & Ceka, B. (2022) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12527 · Cited by 20
Democracy and belief in conspiracy theories in New Zealand
Marques, M. D., Hill, S., Clarke, E. J. R., Williams, M. N., Ling, M., Kerr, J. R., Douglas, K. M., Cichocka, A. K., & Sibley, C. G. (2022) · Australian Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1080/10361146.2022.2122773 · Cited by 20
Metadata
- Authors
- van Prooijen, J.-W., Krouwel, A. P. M., & Pollet, T. V.
- Affiliations
- VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Venue
- Social Psychological and Personality Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-01-12
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 570-578
- ISSN
- 1948-5506 (ISSN-L)
- 1948-5514
- OpenAlex
- W2327590731
- Cited by
- 626
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 115 · 2021: 111 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 54 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 8
- FWCI
- 96.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Social Psychological and Personality Science (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- Northumbria Research Link (Northumbria University) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Terrorism, Counterterrorism, and Political Violence
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- political extremism, conspiracy beliefs, political ideology, left-wing extremism, right-wing extremism, attitude extremity
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