Systemic Racism in Police Killings: New Evidence From the Mapping Police Violence Database, 2013–2021
Open accessAbstract
This research note provides new evidence consistent with systemic anti-Black racism in police killings across the United States. Data come from the Mapping Police Violence Database (2013-2021). I calculate race-specific odds and probabilities that victims of police killings exhibited mental illness, were armed with a weapon, or attempted to flee the scene at the time of their killing. Multilevel, multivariable logistic regression techniques are applied to further account for the victim's age, gender, year of killing, and geographical clustering. I find that White victims are underrepresented, and Black victims overrepresented in the database. Relative to White victims, Black victims also have 60% lower odds of exhibiting signs of mental illness, 23% lower odds of being armed, and 28% higher odds of fleeing. Hispanic victims exhibit 45% lower odds of being armed relative to their White peers but are otherwise comparable. These patterns persist regardless of the victim's age, gender, year of killing, or geographical location (zip code, state, and neighborhood type). Thus, the threshold for being perceived as dangerous, and thereby falling victim to lethal police force, appears to be higher for White civilians relative to their Black or Hispanic peers. Current findings provide empirical support for political initiatives to curb lethal police force, as such efforts could help to reduce racial disparities in deaths by police nationwide.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 5 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
Hispanic and Black victims do not differ significantly in the odds of being armed.
“but similar odds of being armed (not shown)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Findingown data
Compared with White victims, Black victims have 28% greater odds of fleeing the scene (OR = 1.279, p < .01).
“28% greater odds of fleeing the scene (OR = 1.279; p < .01)”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“28% higher odds of fleeing”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“more likely to flee the scene”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
Hispanic victims do not differ significantly from White victims in the odds of being armed.
“but otherwise are comparable”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“no more or less likely to be armed or flee”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
- Findingown data
Black victims appear more frequently in the Mapping Police Violence Database than their share of the US population would predict.
“Thus, White victims are underrepresented, and Black victims overrepresented, in the MPVD dataset.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“I find that White victims are underrepresented, and Black victims overrepresented in the database.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“Black victims of police killings were overrepresented, and their White peers underrepresented, relative to the general US population.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites US Census Bureau, 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The 2020 US Census race distribution is an appropriate comparison for the 2013–2021 police killing data.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
Compared with White victims, Black victims have 60% lower odds of showing signs of mental illness (OR = .402, p < .001).
“Relative to their White peers, Black victims have 60% lower odds of exhibiting mental illness (OR = .402; p < .001)”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Black victims also have 60% lower odds of exhibiting signs of mental illness”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“Black victims were less likely than their White peers to exhibit signs of mental illness”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
Compared with White victims, Black victims have 23% lower odds of being armed.
“Black victims also have 60% lower odds of exhibiting signs of mental illness, 23% lower odds of being armed, and 28% higher odds of fleeing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Findingown data
Hispanic victims do not differ significantly from White victims in the odds of fleeing.
“but otherwise are comparable”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“no more or less likely to be armed or flee”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
- Findingown data
Compared with White victims, Black victims have 17% lower odds of being armed at the scene (OR = .826, p < .01).
“17% lower odds of being armed at the scene (OR = .826; p < .01)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Findingown data
The racial composition of the analytic sample is 51% White, 29% Black, and 20% Hispanic.
“Finally, 51% of victims are White, 29% are Black, and 20% are Hispanic.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Findingown data
Compared with White victims, Hispanic victims have 45% lower odds of being armed.
“Hispanic victims exhibit 45% lower odds of being armed relative to their White peers but are otherwise comparable.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Findingown data
Compared with Black victims, Hispanic victims have 18% lower odds of fleeing the scene (p < .05).
“18% lower odds of fleeing the scene (p < .05)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Findingown data
White victims appear less frequently in the Mapping Police Violence Database than their share of the US population would predict.
“Thus, White victims are underrepresented, and Black victims overrepresented, in the MPVD dataset.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“I find that White victims are underrepresented, and Black victims overrepresented in the database.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“Black victims of police killings were overrepresented, and their White peers underrepresented, relative to the general US population.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites US Census Bureau, 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The 2020 US Census race distribution is an appropriate comparison for the 2013–2021 police killing data.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
Compared with Black victims, Hispanic victims have 35% greater odds of exhibiting mental illness (p < .01).
“When comparing Hispanic and Black victims, Hispanic victims have 35% greater odds of exhibiting mental illness (p < .01)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Findingown data
Compared with White victims, Hispanic victims have 45% lower odds of exhibiting mental illness (OR = .545, p < .001).
“Hispanic victims also have 45% lower odds of exhibiting mental illness relative to Whites (OR = .545; p < .001)”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“Hispanics were less likely than Whites to exhibit signs of mental illness”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
- Findingown data
The odds of victims fleeing the scene increased each year (OR = 1.116, p < .001).
“odds of victims being armed (OR = 1.070) or fleeing the scene (OR = 1.116) have increased each year (p < .001)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Findingown data
Between 2013 and 2021, the odds of victims showing signs of mental illness decreased by roughly 10% per year (OR = .908, p < .001).
“Between 2013 and 2021, the odds of victims exhibiting signs of mental illness during encounters have declined by around 10% each year (OR = .908; p < .001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Findingown data
Older victim age predicts lower odds of fleeing the scene (OR = .966, p < .001).
“Older age predicts greater odds of exhibiting mental illness (OR = 1.017) and being armed at the scene (OR = 1.014), but lower odds of fleeing the scene (OR = .966).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Findingown data
The odds of victims being armed increased each year (OR = 1.070, p < .001).
“odds of victims being armed (OR = 1.070) or fleeing the scene (OR = 1.116) have increased each year (p < .001)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Findingown data
Older victim age predicts greater odds of being armed at the scene (OR = 1.014, p < .001).
“Older age predicts greater odds of exhibiting mental illness (OR = 1.017) and being armed at the scene (OR = 1.014), but lower odds of fleeing the scene (OR = .966).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Findingown data
Male victims have greater odds of fleeing the scene than female victims (OR = 1.418, p < .05).
“Relative to female victims, male victims also have significantly greater odds of being armed (OR = 1.699; p < .001) and fleeing the scene (OR = 1.418; p < .05).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Findingown data
Male victims have greater odds of being armed than female victims (OR = 1.699, p < .001).
“Relative to female victims, male victims also have significantly greater odds of being armed (OR = 1.699; p < .001) and fleeing the scene (OR = 1.418; p < .05).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Study design and conductown data
The observed racial disparities in outcomes remain after accounting for victim age, gender, year of killing, and geographic clustering by zip code, state, and neighborhood type.
“These racial patterns hold regardless of the year of the encounter, age of victim, gender of victim, and the geographical location and clustering of encounters.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“These patterns persist regardless of the victim’s age, gender, year of killing, or geographical location (zip code, state, and neighborhood type).”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“All the above patterns persisted even after accounting for heterogeneity by zip code, state, and neighborhood type in which the fatal encounter occurred.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Interpretationown data
The level of perceived dangerousness required for a civilian to be killed by police appears higher for White civilians than for Black or Hispanic civilians.
“Thus, the threshold for being perceived as dangerous, and thereby falling victim to lethal police force, appears to be higher for White civilians relative to their Black or Hispanic peers.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · hedged
“Put another way, the threshold for being perceived as dangerous, and thereby falling victim to lethal police force, appears to be higher for White civilians than their Black or Hispanic peers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
- Rests on an assumption: Racial disparities in these behaviors and representation reflect racial bias in police use of lethal force rather than other unmeasured factors.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · hedged
- Interpretationown data
The study offers strong evidence of systemic racism in police killings throughout the United States.
“This study provides rigorous and compelling evidence of systemic racism in police killings across the United States.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Racial disparities in these behaviors and representation reflect racial bias in police use of lethal force rather than other unmeasured factors.
- Interpretationown data
The findings align with the idea of systemic pro-White and anti-Black racism in policing across the nation.
“These findings are consistent with the notion of systemic pro-White/anti-Black racism in policing nationwide.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Racial disparities in these behaviors and representation reflect racial bias in police use of lethal force rather than other unmeasured factors.
- May combine two claims. 8
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe average predicted probability of fleeing the scene is 33% for Black victims, 29% for Hispanic victims, and 28% for White victims.
“Figure 3 shows that Black victims have the highest average probability of fleeing the scene at 33%, followed by Hispanic (29%) and White (28%) victims.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe average predicted probability of exhibiting mental illness is 32% for White victims, 16% for Black victims, and 21% for Hispanic victims.
“Figure 1 shows that White victims have a 32% predicted probability of exhibiting mental illness, while Black and Hispanic victims have respective probabilities of 16% and 21%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe average predicted probability of being armed is 80% for White victims, 77% for Black victims, and 78% for Hispanic victims.
“In Figure 2, White victims have an 80% predicted probability of being armed, while Black and Hispanic victims have respective probabilities of 77% and 78%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataOlder victim age predicts greater odds of exhibiting mental illness (OR = 1.017, p < .001).
“Older age predicts greater odds of exhibiting mental illness (OR = 1.017) and being armed at the scene (OR = 1.014), but lower odds of fleeing the scene (OR = .966).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe 2020 US Census estimates the US population as 62% White, 12% Black, and 19% Hispanic.
“According to estimates from the 2020 US Census, 62% of the United States population is White, 12% is Black, and 19% is Hispanic (US Census Bureau, 2021).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites US Census Bureau, 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe MPVD documents fatal encounters from 2013 to 2021 caused by shooting, chokehold, baton, taser, or other means, involving on- and off-duty police officers.
“Documented fatal encounters include deaths by shooting, chokehold, baton, taser, or other means by on- and off-duty police officers between 2013 and 2021.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sinyangwe et al., 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe Mapping Police Violence Database is among the most comprehensive databases of police killing victims in the United States.
“The MPVD currently represents one of the most comprehensive databases of police killing victims in the United States (Sinyangwe et al., 2021)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sinyangwe et al., 2021
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe study's findings support political efforts to reduce lethal police force, and such efforts could help lower racial disparities in police killings across the country.
“Current findings provide empirical support for political initiatives to curb lethal police force, as such efforts could help to reduce racial disparities in deaths by police nationwide.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Racial disparities in these behaviors and representation reflect racial bias in police use of lethal force rather than other unmeasured factors.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe study's data covered all 50 states, Washington, D.C., more than 4,000 five-digit zip codes, and suburban, urban, and rural areas.
“Data in this study encompassed all 50 states and the Washington, D.C. area, over 4,000 five-digit zip codes, and a mix of suburban, urban, and rural areas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningEfforts to reduce lethal police force could help address racial disparities in police killings and may also reduce broader health disparities.
“Policymakers will also benefit from knowing that political initiatives aimed at curbing the use of lethal police force could help to address racial disparities in deaths by police, and may even help to mitigate broader health disparities in the United States.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Racial disparities in these behaviors and representation reflect racial bias in police use of lethal force rather than other unmeasured factors.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAddressing systemic racism in policing might reduce chronic stress and improve health among Black men.
“This study suggests that redressing systemic racism in policing could conceivably reduce chronic stress burdens and improve health among Black men, who are still disproportionately targeted by police nationwide.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Racial disparities in these behaviors and representation reflect racial bias in police use of lethal force rather than other unmeasured factors.
The paper relies on this without support.
The MPVD accurately records the race and pre-killing behaviors (mental illness, armed, fleeing) of victims.
“The database also includes information about the victim’s race, age, gender, geographic location, and behaviors leading up to their fatal police encounter.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The MPVD is a representative and sufficiently complete record of police killings in the US for the study period.
“The MPVD currently represents one of the most comprehensive databases of police killing victims in the United States (Sinyangwe et al., 2021)”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 2020 US Census race distribution is an appropriate comparison for the 2013–2021 police killing data.
“According to estimates from the 2020 US Census, 62% of the United States population is White, 12% is Black, and 19% is Hispanic (US Census Bureau, 2021).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The behaviors (exhibiting mental illness, being armed, fleeing) are valid proxies for the threat perceived by police officers at the time of the killing.
“Thus, the threshold for being perceived as dangerous, and thereby falling victim to lethal police force, appears to be higher for White civilians relative to their Black or Hispanic peers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Racial disparities in these behaviors and representation reflect racial bias in police use of lethal force rather than other unmeasured factors.
“This study provides rigorous and compelling evidence of systemic racism in police killings across the United States.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Black victims' armed-odds reduction differs between sections
MinorThe abstract reports 23% lower odds of being armed for Black victims relative to White victims, while the results report 17% lower odds. The reported odds ratio of .826 supports the results figure, not the abstract figure.
“Black victims also have 60% lower odds of exhibiting signs of mental illness, 23% lower odds of being armed, and 28% higher odds of fleeing.”
“Black victims have 60% lower odds of exhibiting mental illness (OR = .402; p < .001), 17% lower odds of being armed at the scene (OR = .826; p < .01), but 28% greater odds of fleeing the scene (OR = 1.279; p < .01).”
Hispanic disparity is assigned to the wrong outcome in the abstract
MinorThe abstract says Hispanic victims have 45% lower odds of being armed and are otherwise comparable to White victims. The results instead assign the 45% reduction to signs of mental illness and say their odds of being armed are comparable.
“Hispanic victims exhibit 45% lower odds of being armed relative to their White peers but are otherwise comparable.”
“Hispanic victims also have 45% lower odds of exhibiting mental illness relative to Whites (OR = .545; p < .001), but otherwise are comparable.”
Thomas citation year differs from its reference entry
MinorThe in-text citation gives 2021, but the corresponding reference entry gives 2020.
“(Ba et al., 2021; Fagan & Campbell, 2020; Legewie & Fagan, 2016; Thomas et al., 2021).”
“15. Thomas MD, Jewell NP, & Allen AM (2020). Black and Unarmed: Statistical Interaction between Age, Perceived Mental Illness, and Geographic Region among Males Fatally Shot by Police using Case-Only Design.”
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Woods, J. B. (2019) · Michigan Law Review · doi:10.36644/mlr.117.4.policing · Cited by 28 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, police training narratives commonly depict routine traf fi c stops as perilous encounters that command hyper-vigilance of of fi cers, despite recent estimates indicating that only 1 in 6.5 million traf fi c stops result in the killing of a police of fi cer (Woods, 2019).”
InfluentialHummer, R. A., & Hamilton, E. R. (2019) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctvh1dxgm · Cited by 27 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For instance, Black Americans — and especially Black men — have long been known to live shorter and sicker lives than their White peers (Hummer & Hamilton, 2019).”
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 18 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Fagan J. A., 2020, Boston University Law Review, 100, 951
- Gruber A., 2021, Houston Law Review, 58, 867
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Vitro, C., Clark, D. A., Sherman, C., Heitzeg, M. M., & Hicks, B. M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0271954 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Haile, R., Rowell‐Cunsolo, T. L., Hyacinthe, M.-F., & Alang, S. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115784 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Kennedy, R. S., Dendy, K., & Lawrence, A. (2024) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2024.101958 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Ethical Decision-Making in Law Enforcement: A Scoping Review
Dempsey, R. P., Eskander, E., & Dubljević, V. (2023) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych5020037 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Judson, J., Orakwue, K., & Alang, S. (2024) · SSM - Qualitative Research in Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmqr.2024.100470 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Cooper, D., Frisbie, S., Wang, S., Ventimiglia, J. C., Gibbs, V., Love, A. M. A., Mogavero, M. C., Benevides, T. W., Hyatt, J. M., Hooven, K., et al. (2024) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3203 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“For example, in the United States, encounters between Black men and police based on racist perceptions (DeAngelis, 2021) have contributed to multiple intersecting risks for autistic individuals who also are Black (Hutson et al., 2022).”
Officer-Involved Killings of Unarmed Black People and Racial Disparities in Sleep Health
Venkataramani, A. S., Bair, E. F., Bor, J. H., Jackson, C. L., Kawachi, I. I., Lee, J., Papachristos, A. V., & Tsai, A. C. (2024) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.8003 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Fear of a Black Neighborhood: Anti-Black Racism and the Health of White Americans
Louie, P., & DeAngelis, R. T. (2023) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/soad112 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationMulti-group data versus dual-side theory: On race contrasts and police-caused homicides
Wilkes, R., & Karimi, A. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115946 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Schoenfeld, H., Walker, C., & Rosa, M. (2025) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12397 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zhao, Y., He, D., & Reszka, S. (2023) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287231218706 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“These measures were constructed using data from Mapping Police Violence, a crowd-sourced database that provides comprehensive information on police killings, and has been shown to be both valid and reliable (see Comer & Ingram, 2022; DeAngelis, 2021; Gaston et al., 2021).”
The Black Suburban Sort: Is Suburbanization Diversifying Blacks’ Racial Attitudes?
Rogers, R. R. (2024) · RSF The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2024.10.4.06 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Proportionally more sub-urbanites than urban residents are victims of deadly encounters with police (DeAngelis 2021; Sinyangwe 2020).”
Bodies of evidence: The ‘Excited Delirium Syndrome’ and the epistemology of cause-of-death inquiry
Fischer, E., & Jukola, S. (2024) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A · doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2023.12.009 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Social Defeat and Psychosis in the United States: A Replication and Critical Reconceptualization
Cosse, J. I., Amos, B., Prout, L., Downey, D. L., Kim, S., Secaira, S., Fedina, L., & DeVylder, J. (2025) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbaf081 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Pan, A., Jackson, D. B., Adurkar, N., & Fix, R. L. (2025) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1080/13218719.2024.2416629 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Jackson, A. N. (2022) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1108/s0163-786x20220000046004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ruffin, J. R. (2023) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2023.2252147 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“(DeAngelis 2021).”
Snyder, S. A., Kuan, K. E., Velasco, M. G., & Saadi, A. (2024) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-024-08767-x · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Arrested Realities: Unveiling the Influence of Identity and Skin Tone on Depression
Confer, L. M., & Kopf, S. (2025) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687251320628 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Efstathiadou, G., & Ioakimidis, V. (2025) · Subjectivity · doi:10.1057/s41286-025-00226-0 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Rassismusforschung in Bewegung: Rassismus – ein neues altes Thema?
Sinanoğlu, C., & Polat, S. (2023) · transcript Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783839461501-001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lopez-Vergara, H. I., Charvis, J. S., Rozum, W., Crawford, M. C., & Vergara‐Lopez, C. (2025) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000775 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Servant Leadership: The Impact on Employee Job Satisfaction in Law Enforcement
Yang, P. M. (2023) · Journal of Leadership Accountability and Ethics · doi:10.33423/jlae.v2023i20.6515 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A plan for black American reparations
Mullen, A. K., Richardson, E. T., Bassett, M. T., & Darity, W. A. J. (2026) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2024-017216 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Lenoir, L. D. (2023) · University of Missouri Dissertation · doi:10.32469/10355/94284 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Wong, B. Y. S. (2024) · Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy · doi:10.1080/13698230.2024.2411484 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Tracking (In)Justice: Documenting Fatal Encounters with Police in Canada
Crosby, A., McClelland, A., Sharpe, T. L., et al. (2025) · Canadian Journal of Law and Society / Revue Canadienne Droit et Société · doi:10.1017/cls.2025.1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“However, it has been noted that, over time, the sources are becoming less similar, which necessitates continued inspection of the data across the various open-source platforms over time (DeAngelis 2021).”
Dangerous City: Territorial Stigmatization, Crime, and Public Safety Political Discourse on Cities
Hinze, A. M. (2025) · Urban Affairs Review · doi:10.1177/10780874251362736 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.001.0001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Polat, S., & Rassismusmonitor, N. D. U. (2023) · Gesellschaft der Unterschiede · doi:10.14361/9783839461501 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Racial Caste and Post-Racial Caste Impact on American Society and Democracy from 1619 to 2023
Givel, M. S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68127-2_431-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Methodological Challenges for Research on Racial Bias in Police Shootings
Murphy, J. P., Neil, R., & Paige, J. W. (2024) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/rra243-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Creating pedagogical possibilities through media representations of “the talk” in civics classrooms
Jones, B. L., & Duncan, K. E. (2024) · Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/15505170.2024.2379907 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Although the failures of civic education are enduring, findings from our study illuminate how incorporating media representations of “the talk” into civics lessons can provide insight into the fragility of citizenship for Black Americans in the United States.”
InfluentialThe Impact of State Laws on Officer-Involved Deaths (OIDs)
Steele, M., & Qi, Z. (2024) · Criminology Criminal Justice Law & Society · doi:10.54555/ccjls.11127.126714 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Vitro, C., Clark, D. A., Sherman, C., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/72r6e · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Policing the Police: Examining the Role of News Reports on Racially-Biased PolicingPreprint
Ananthakrishnan, U. M., Chan, J., & Song, Y. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4152235 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Köhler, E. A., & May, M. D. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4627510 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
DM-FS: A Comprehensive Database on Death-Modulated Fatal Shootings
Verrey, J. (2025) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-025-04649-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Rizov, V. (2023) · Palgrave Studies in Crime, Media and Culture · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-12978-0_8
Rassismusforschung in Bewegung: Rassismus - ein neues altes Thema?
Sinanoglu, C., & Polat, S. (2023) · Gesellschaft der Unterschiede · doi:10.14361/9783839461501-001
Descriptive Epidemiology of Females Killed by Law Enforcement Officers, 2013–2020
Price, J. H., & Payton, E. (2023) · Violence and Gender · doi:10.1089/vio.2023.0037
“However, a study of LEOs killings of citizens of both sexes in the United States using the data-base Mapping Police Violence (2013–2021), found that the majority occurred in metropolitan areas (78%), were white (51%), and only 5% were females, findings similar to our study (DeAngelis, 2021).”
Allocating Police and Security: Comparing Public and Private Processes and Consequences
Benson, B. L. (2023) · Competitive government · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-42406-9_2
“They Must Be Guilty of Something”: The Myth of Criminality
Anderson, K. J. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009244053.004
Fix, R. L., Pan, A., & Hong, K. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108143 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Jones, B. L. (2025) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/09518398.2025.2470931
Givel, M. S. (2025) · Ethnicities · doi:10.1177/14687968251364865
“This has continued with recent police violence and killings of African Americans at much higher rates than other racial groups (Bunn, 2022; DeAngelis, 2021).”
McConnell, E. A., Aleksyuk, Y., & Birkett, M. A. (2025) · Culture Health & Sexuality · doi:10.1080/13691058.2025.2544776
“In the USA, young Black men are disproportionately policed and are more likely to experience police harassment and misconduct (Alexander 2012) as well as be victims of fatal police shootings (despite being less likely than White victims to be armed; DeAngelis 2024).”
Fatal Police Shootings and Community Health in the United States: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study
Dong, B., Semenza, D. C., Jackson, D. B., & Houser, T. E. (2025) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-025-09862-3
“…area is expanding, to our knowledge, few studies have investigated the association between fatal police shootings and collective health outcomes throughout whole neighborhoods on a nationwide scale in the U.S. (Lett et al., 2021; DeAngelis, 2021; Edwards et al., 2019; Venkataramani et al., 2024).”
The Impact of State Laws on Officer-Involved Deaths (OIDs)
Steele, M., & Qi, Z. (2025) · Актуальные проблемы экономики и права · doi:10.21202/2782-2923.2025.4.899-923
Vulnerability outpaces climate worry in US frontline communities
Carman, J., Goddard, E., Salgado, M., Rosenthal, S. A., Marlon, J. R., Barendregt-Ludwig, K., Verner, M., Kotcher, J., Maibach, E., & Leiserowitz, A. (2026) · One Earth · doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2025.101599
Jones, B. H. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0010
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0011
Aggressors with Mental Illness
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0007
Distributive Justice and Deadly Force
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0005
Racial Disparities in Police Deadly Force
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0008
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0012
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0009
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.005.0001
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0001
Self-Defense, Policing, and War
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0003
The Priority of Protecting Life
Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0004
Onuzulike, U., Parlade, P., Zanders, S., & Butler, J. (2026) · Critical Studies in Media Communication · doi:10.1080/15295036.2026.2649764
“Armstrong’s frustration exemplifies the excruciating emotions experienced by people of color in cities across the United States.”
InfluentialThe Perceptions of Black Americans and the Development of a Culture of Mistrust for Police
Crawford, K. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-4297-9.ch008
Ruffin, J. R., Foxworth, G., & Underwood, M. (2026) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687261451717
Reid, J. C., Espinoza, D. A., & Kelley, A. E. (2026) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687261455683
Holmes, M. D., Painter, M. A., Muñoz, E. A., et al. (2026) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687261455740
Mapping definitions and measures of police violence in health literature: a scoping review
Harris, L. K. K., Conklin, J., Mărginean, V., Woods‐Giscombé, C. L., & Cortés, Y. I. (2026) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-026-28146-x
“Police violence is a complex issue influenced by various factors, including policy, environmental conditions, and systemic elements [3, 98, 99].”
Novick, R., & Robles, M. (2026) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/08874034261458676
“Prior research demonstrates that police disproportionately use force against Black men (Ba et al., 2021; Clymer, 2022; DeAngelis, 2024; Fagan & Campbell, 2020; Fryer, 2019; Morrow et al., 2017; Olzak, 2021; Terrill & Mastrofski, 2002).”
- Authors
- DeAngelis, R. T.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Corresponding author
- DeAngelis, Reed T.
- ORCID
- DeAngelis, Reed T.
- Venue
- Race and Justice
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2021-10-19
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 413-422
- ISSN
- 2153-3687 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC11343075
- OpenAlex
- W3205106466
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 5
- FWCI
- 26.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Race and Justice (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2C-HD050924, T32-HD091058)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- systemic racism, police killings, anti-Black racism, Black victims, mental illness
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