Patterns in the prevalence and wealth-based inequality of cervical cancer screening in India
Open accessAbstract
Background: Cervical cancer is the second leading cause of deaths due to cancer among women in India. This study assesses the prevalence of cervical cancer screening among women in the 30 to 49 years age-group and its relation to demographic, social and economic factors. The equity in the prevalence of screening is studied with respect to the women’s household wealth. Methods: Data from the fifth National Family Health Survey are analyzed. The adjusted odds ratio is used to assess the prevalence of screening. The Concentration Index (CIX) and the Slope Index of Inequality (SII) are analyzed to assess the inequality. Results: The average national prevalence of cervical cancer screening is found to be 1.97% (95% C.I, 1.8–2.1), ranging from 0.2% in West Bengal and Assam to 10.1% in Tamil Nadu. Screening is significantly more prevalent among the following demographics: educated, higher age group, Christian, scheduled caste, Government health insurance coverage, and high household wealth. Significantly lower prevalence is found among Muslim women, women from scheduled tribes, general category castes, non-Government health insurance coverage, high parity, and those who use oral contraceptive pills and tobacco. Marital status, place of residence, age at first sexual activity, and IUD usage are not significant influencers. At the national level, CIX (0.22 (95% C.I, 0.20–0.24)) and SII (0.018 (95% C.I, 0.015–0.020)) indicate significantly higher prevalence of screening among women from the wealthier quintiles. Significantly higher screening prevalence among wealthier quintiles in the North-East (0.1), West (0.21) and Southern (0.05) regions and among the poor quintiles in the Central (-0.05) region. Equiplot analysis shows a “top inequality pattern” in the North, North-East and Eastern regions, with overall low performance where the rich alone manage to avail screening. The Southern region exhibits an overall progress in screening prevalence with the exception of the poorest quintile, which is left behind. Pro-poor inequality exists in the Central region, with significantly higher prevalence of screening among poor. Conclusion: The prevalence of cervical cancer screening is very low (2%) in India. Cervical cancer screening is substantially higher among women with education and Government Health insurance coverage. Wealth-based inequality exists in the prevalence of cervical cancer screening and the prevalence is concentrated among the women from wealthier quintiles.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The efficacy of opportunistic screening strategies is often mediated by complex socio-demographic disparities.
“However, the efficacy of these strategies is often mediated by complex socio-demographic disparities.”
From Integrating a “see-and-treat” approach with opportunistic human papilloma virus deoxyribonucleic acid (HPV DNA) based cervical cancer screening in India: a retrospective cross-sectional study (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
The Discussion says that understanding socio-demographic and economic differences in screening prevalence is key to achieving target screening levels. It also mentions a facility-based opportunistic program in Tamil Nadu, but does not assess whether those disparities mediate that program’s efficacy. The Results report differences in screening prevalence, not strategy efficacy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Sung, H., Ferlay, J., Siegel, R. L., Laversanne, M., Soerjomataram, I., Jemal, A., & Bray, F. (2021) · CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians · doi:10.3322/caac.21660 · Cited by 108,699 · see citing works
Estimates of incidence and mortality of cervical cancer in 2018: a worldwide analysis
Arbyn, M., Weiderpass, E., Bruni, L., de Sanjosé, S., Saraiya, M., Ferlay, J., & Bray, F. (2019) · The Lancet Global Health · doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(19)30482-6 · Cited by 4,241 · see citing works
Cancer Statistics, 2020: Report From National Cancer Registry Programme, India
Mathur, P., Sathishkumar, K., Chaturvedi, M., Das, P., Sudarshan, K. L., Santhappan, S., Nallasamy, V., John, A., Narasimhan, S., Roselind, F. S., et al. (2020) · JCO Global Oncology · doi:10.1200/go.20.00122 · Cited by 1,204 · see citing works
Arbyn, M., Smith, S. B., Temin, S., Sultana, F., & Castle, P. (2018) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.k4823 · Cited by 851 · see citing works
Barros, A. J. D., & Victora, C. G. (2013) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001390 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Burden of cervical cancer and role of screening in India
Bobdey, S., Sathwara, J., Jain, A., & Balasubramaniam, G. (2016) · Indian Journal of Medical and Paediatric Oncology · doi:10.4103/0971-5851.195751 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Epidemiology of cervical cancer with special focus on India
Aswathy, S., Reshma, J., & Dinesh, A. (2015) · International Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.2147/ijwh.s50001 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Musa, J., Achenbach, C. J., O’Dwyer, L. C., Evans, C. T., McHugh, M., Hou, L., Simon, M. A., Murphy, R. L., & Jordan, N. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0183924 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Victora, C. G., Fenn, B., Bryce, J., & Kirkwood, B. R. (2005) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)67599-x · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Educational Interventions for Cervical Cancer Screening Behavior of Women: A Systematic Review
Naz, M. S. G., Kariman, N., Ebadi, A., Ozgoli, G., Ghasemi, V., & Fakari, F. R. (2018) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.22034/apjcp.2018.19.4.875 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Yabroff, K. R., Reeder-Hayes, K. E., Zhao, J., Halpern, M. T., López, A. M., Bernal‐Mizrachi, L., Collier, A. B., Neuner, J. M., Phillips, J., Blackstock, W. A., et al. (2020) · JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute · doi:10.1093/jnci/djaa048 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Cervical cancer screening in rural India: Status & current concepts
Srivastava, A., Misra, J., Srivastava, S., Das, B. C., & Gupta, S. (2018) · The Indian journal of medical research · doi:10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_5_17 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Health Insurance Status and Clinical Cancer Screenings Among U.S. Adults
Zhao, G., Okoro, C. A., Li, J., & Town, M. (2017) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2017.08.024 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
National screening programs for cervical cancer in Asian countries
Saitoh, E., Yin, R., Li, K., Bhatla, N., Singhal, S., Ocviyanti, D., Saika, K., Suh, M., Kim, M., & Termrungruanglert, W. (2020) · Journal of Gynecologic Oncology · doi:10.3802/jgo.2020.31.e55 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Reichheld, A. M., Mukherjee, P. K., Rahman, S. M. F., David, K. V., & Pricilla, R. A. (2020) · Annals of Global Health · doi:10.5334/aogh.2735 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Socio-economic inequality of utilization of cancer testing in Europe: A cross-sectional study
Bozhar, H., McKee, M., Spadea, T., Veerus, P., Heinävaara, S. H., Anttila, A., Senore, C., Zielonke, N., de Kok, I. M. C. M., van Ravesteyn, N. T., et al. (2022) · Preventive Medicine Reports · doi:10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.101733 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Giannini, A., Donato, V. D., Sopracordevole, F., Ciavattini, A., Ghelardi, A., Vizza, E., D’Oria, O., Simoncini, T., Plotti, F., Casarin, J., et al. (2023) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines11030698 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Akokuwebe, M. E., Idemudia, E. S., Lekulo, A. M., & Motlogeloa, O. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-12020-z · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Hasahya, O. T., Berggren, V., Sematimba, D., Nabirye, R. C., & Kumakech, E. (2016) · Global Health Action · doi:10.3402/gha.v9.29336 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Donato, V. D., Bogani, G., Casarin, J., Ghezzi, F., Malzoni, M., Falcone, F., Petrillo, M., Capobianco, G., Calò, F., D’Augè, T. G., et al. (2023) · Gynecologic Oncology · doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2023.04.030 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Monti, M., D’Aniello, D., Scopelliti, A., Tibaldi, V., Santangelo, G., Colagiovanni, V., Giannini, A., Donato, V. D., Palaia, I., Perniola, G., et al. (2021) · Minerva Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.23736/s2724-606x.20.04678-x · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Establishing Baseline Cervical Cancer Screening Coverage — India, 2015–2016
Dyne, E. A. V., Hallowell, B. D., Saraiya, M., Senkomago, V., Patel, S. A., Agrawal, S., Ghosh, A., Saraf, D. S., Mehrotra, R., & Dhillon, P. K. (2019) · MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report · doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6801a4 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
AL-Hammadi, F. A., Al-Tahri, F., Al-Ali, A., Nair, S. C., & Abdulrahman, M. (2017) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.22034/apjcp.2017.18.12.3379 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Tapera, O., Kadzatsa, W., Nyakabau, A. M., Mavhu, W. M., Dreyer, G., Stray‐Pedersen, B., & Hendricks, S. J. H. (2019) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-019-6749-6 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Thulaseedharan, J. V., Frie, K. G., & Sankaranarayanan, R. (2019) · Journal of Education and Health Promotion · doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_156_19 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Harries, J., Scott, S. E., Walter, F. M., Mwaka, A. D., & Moodley, J. (2020) · BMC Women s Health · doi:10.1186/s12905-020-01120-4 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Modeling spatial access to cervical cancer screening services in Ondo State, Nigeria
Stewart, K., Li, M., Xia, Z., Adewole, A., Adeyemo, O., & Adebamowo, C. (2020) · International Journal of Health Geographics · doi:10.1186/s12942-020-00222-4 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Krishnamoorthy, Y., Ganesh, K., & Sakthivel, M. (2021) · Indian Journal of Cancer · doi:10.4103/ijc.ijc_576_19 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Barrett, B. W., Paz‐Soldán, V. A., Mendoza-Cervantes, D., Meza‐Sánchez, G., López, J. J. C., Gravitt, P. E., Rositch, A. F., & on behalf of the Proyecto Precancer Study Group (2020) · JCO Global Oncology · doi:10.1200/go.20.00096 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
High Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesion
Khieu, M., & Butler, S. L. (2021) · StatPearls · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Impact of Literacy Status on the Cervical Cancer Screening in Rural Women of India
Misra, J. (2017) · Investigations in Gynecology Research & Womens Health (IGRWH) · doi:10.31031/igrwh.2017.01.000510 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Garg, P., Krishnamoorthy, Y., Halder, P., Rajaa, S., Verma, M., Kankaria, A., Goel, A., & Kakkar, R. (2025) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-025-13446-z · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Anaba, E. A., Alor, S. K., Badzi, C. D., Bongfen, M. C., Muki, B., & Afaya, A. (2024) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-024-12697-6 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Habte, A., Bizuayehu, H. M., & Tirore, L. L. (2024) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-024-12789-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Human Papillomavirus and Other Relevant Issues in Cervical Cancer Pathogenesis
Ray, A. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26125549 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Thanigaimalai, M., Nainangu, P., Panda, S. P., Shaik, M. R., Hussain, S. A., Antonyraj, A. P. M., & Guru, A. (2025) · South African Journal of Botany · doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2024.11.009 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Maheshwari, V., Girotra, S., Malik, M., & Basu, S. (2025) · Cancer Research, Statistics, and Treatment · doi:10.4103/crst.crst_99_24 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Rahman, M. M., Rahman, M. S., Islam, M. R., Gilmour, S., Haruyama, R., Budukh, A., Shankar, A., Mishra, G. A., Mehrotra, R., Matsuda, T., et al. (2024) · Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.2188/jea.je20240065 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Fit to Persuade: The Role of Source–Appeal Congruence in Cancer Screening Decisions
Ponnappan, V., Nivsarkar, A., Satyavageeswaran, P., & Bharadwaj, S. G. (2025) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1177/00222429251355263 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cervical cancer screening uptake in Côte d’Ivoire: Analysis of prevalence and associated factors
Adzigbli, L. A., Dowou, R. K., Gbordzoe, N. I., Mensah, T., Arwill, G., Aboagye, R. G., & Baiden, F. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-23103-6 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rahman, M. S., Rahman, M. M., Acharya, K. P., Haruyama, R., Shah, R., Matsuda, T., Inoue, M., & Abe, S. K. (2024) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-24-0037 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Halder, P., Sharma, D., Behera, A., Aggarwal, A. K., Mamgai, A., Syal, P., Chopra, S., & Kiran, T. (2025) · Reproductive Health · doi:10.1186/s12978-025-02121-y · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cannabis sativa: Cervical cancer treatment- Role of phytocannabinoids-A story of concern
Malabadi, R. B., Sadiya, M. R., Prathima, T. C., Kolkar, K. P., Mammadova, S. S., & CHALANNAVAR, R. K. (2024) · World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences · doi:10.30574/wjbphs.2024.17.2.0076 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cervical Cancer Prevention Efforts in India: A Reality Check
Shamsunder, S., & Verma, S. (2024) · Journal of Colposcopy and Lower Genital Tract Pathology · doi:10.4103/jclgtp.jclgtp_7_24 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Phukan, P. K., Dutta, A., Deuri, A., Choudhury, G., Borpujari, P., Bhattacharyya, N., & Gogoi, G. (2024) · Annals of Oncology Research and Therapy · doi:10.4103/aort.aort_28_24 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Tanveer, A., Ali, R. H., Majhi, J., & Mukherjee, M. (2026) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1729796 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Padolina, C. S., & Toral, J. A. B. (2024) · Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology research · doi:10.1111/jog.16032 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mohammed, E. U., Taye, G., Assefa, M., Addissie, A., & Jemal, A. (2025) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-24-1408 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kolasseri, A. E., & Bhimavarapu, V. (2025) · Indian Journal of Gynecologic Oncology · doi:10.1007/s40944-025-01027-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Uncommon but Important: Tertiary Center Experience with Rare Cases of Breast Hamartoma
Tîrnovanu, M. C., Toma, B. F., Cojocaru, E., Țarcă, E., Tîrnovanu, Ș.-D., Tîrnovanu, V. G., Martu, C. M., Covali, R. A., Grădinariu, A. I., Ghiga, G., et al. (2025) · Life · doi:10.3390/life15071076 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ghosh, S., Goswami, A., Bandyopadhyay, A., Saha, R. G., & Mandal, P. (2025) · Journal of Medical Virology · doi:10.1002/jmv.70472 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
KULAL, S., Jayashree, H., Anandakumar, A. S., Rashmi, H. R., & Pushpa, G. S. (2025) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.88967 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Disparities in cervical cancer screening among Indian women aged 45 years and older
Singh, A. (2026) · Discover Health Systems · doi:10.1007/s44250-026-00384-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Awareness of Cervical vaccine among women attending OBG OPD at Bapuji Hospital, Davanagere
Latha, S., Lakshmi, O., & Mamatha, A. J. (2024) · doi:10.52711/jnmr.2024.25 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kamaté, B., Kassogué, Y., Diakité, B., Traore, B., Cisse, K., Diarra, F., Kassogué, O., Diarra, M., Coulibaly, A., Coulibaly, B., et al. (2024) · Biochemical Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10528-024-10949-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Rao, S., Chhabra, M., Kudkuli, J., Toraskar, M., Nath, A. G., Prakash, D., Srivastava, S., Imo Singh, W., Chandrasekharan, M., Oswal, K., et al. (2026) · AJOG Global Reports · doi:10.1016/j.xagr.2026.100678
Sahu, B., Thakur, M., & Shapeti, S. S. (2024) · Journal of Cancer Research and Therapeutics · doi:10.4103/jcrt.jcrt_241_24
Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practice Regarding Cervical Cancer among Sample of Women in Baghdad
Hussein, I. F., Kareem, B. M., & Saod, M. K. (2025) · Iraqi Journal of Community Medicine · doi:10.4103/irjcm.irjcm_48_24
Prevalence of Cervical Cancer in Colonial War Memorial (CWM) Hospital from 2016-2023
Sharma, S., Lasaufmal, G., Murthi, N., Singh, A., & Devi, A. (2025) · doi:10.38124/ijisrt/25apr455
Opportunistic Cervical Cancer Screening During Antenatal Visits: A Small Step Toward Early Detection
Verma, R., Sharma, R., Mishra, P., & Mishra, N. (2025) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.89433
Siddique, A. B., Sultana, C., Roy, C., Rahman, T., Hkatun, M. J., Haider, M., Akter, S., Carmack, C. C., & Kundu, L. R. (2025) · Health Science Reports · doi:10.1002/hsr2.71276
Cervical Cancer Screening Among Rural Women in Ernakulam District, Kerala: A Cross-Sectional Study
Johnson, M., Joy, T. M., Rasheed, A., Rose, B. M., & Aswathy Krishnan, S. (2026) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.100961
Oyaro, B., Wanje, G., Richardson, B. A., Temmerman, M., McClelland, R. S., & Eastment, M. C. (2026) · Implementation Science Communications · doi:10.1186/s43058-025-00852-4
Mondal, S., Praiwal, B., Ramcharan, G., Shashank, N., & Raghu, M. (2026) · International Conference on Intelligent and Innovative Technologies in Computing, Electrical and Electronics (IITCEE) · doi:10.1109/iitcee67948.2026.11394463
Chang, Y., Kay, N., Chiu, L.-C., Huang, C., Li, H.-J., Yeh, S., & Su, Y.-C. (2026) · Cancers · doi:10.3390/cancers18050881
Bhattacharya, M., Baidya, J. L., Majumdar, T. K., Nath, S., & Pattnaik, M. (2026) · Indian Journal of Gynecologic Oncology · doi:10.1007/s40944-026-01128-y
Rahman, I., & Hocaoğlu, M. (2026) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-026-10734-7
Kodariyah, K., Budiati, T., & Kurniawati, W. (2026) · Journal of Pharmaceutical And Sciences · doi:10.36490/journal-jps.com.v9i1.1264
Olubodun, T., Luoga, P., & Adam, J. (2026) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0006668 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Agrawal, A., Astha, Garg, P., Tyagi, G., Agrawal, P., Verma, U., Garg, R., Gupta, A., & Gupta, S. (2026) · Journal of Mid-life Health · doi:10.4103/jmh.jmh_378_25
- Authors
- Muthuramalingam, M. R., & Muraleedharan, V. R.
- Affiliations
- Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IN)
- Corresponding author
- Muthuramalingam, M. R.
- ORCID
- Muraleedharan, V. R.
- Venue
- BMC Women's Health
- Published
- 2023-06-26
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 337-337
- ISSN
- 1472-6874 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC10291770
- OpenAlex
- W4382058141
- Cited by
- 40
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 11
- FWCI
- 7.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- BMC Women s Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Cervical Cancer and HPV Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Women's cancer prevention and management
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Global Cancer Incidence and Screening
- Keywords
- cervical cancer screening, health equity, household wealth inequality, socioeconomic determinants of health, women's health, health insurance coverage, caste, parity, oral contraceptives, tobacco use, concentration index, slope index of inequality, India, National Family Health Survey, regional disparities
- MeSH terms
- Uterine Cervical Neoplasms, Female, Humans, India, Pregnancy, Socioeconomic Factors, Prevalence, Early Detection of Cancer
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
