Optimizing song retention through the spacing effect
Open accessAbstract
The spacing effect refers to the improvement in memory retention for materials learned in a series of sessions, as opposed to massing learning in a single session. It has been extensively studied in the domain of verbal learning using word lists. Less evidence is available for connected discourse or tasks requiring the complex coordination of verbal and other domains. In particular, the effect of spacing on the retention of words and music in song has yet to be determined. In this study, university students were taught an unaccompanied two-verse song based on traditional materials to a criterion of 95% correct memory for sung words. Subsequent training sessions were either massed or spaced by two days or one week and tested at a retention interval of three weeks. Performances were evaluated for number of correct and incorrect syllables, number of correctly and incorrectly pitched notes, degree notes were off-pitch, and number of hesitations while singing. The data revealed strong evidence for a spacing effect for song between the massed and spaced conditions at a retention interval of three weeks, and evidence of no difference between the two spaced conditions. These findings suggest that the ongoing cues offered by surface features in the song are strong enough to enable verbatim recall across spaced conditions, as long as the spacing interval reaches a critical threshold.
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A distinctive methodological feature is the rigorous use of delayed post-tests, ranging from two weeks to one year, serving as the primary indicator of internal validity for long-term memory consolidation.
“A distinctive methodological feature is the rigorous use of delayed post-tests, ranging from two weeks to one year, serving as the primary indicator of internal validity for long-term memory (LTM) consolidation rather than transitory performance”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Katz et al., 2021
The Method > Design section reports a delayed final test three weeks after review, with word and note accuracy at that test used as outcome measures. It does not report post-tests ranging from two weeks to one year or describe delayed testing as the primary indicator of internal validity for long-term memory consolidation. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe use of MMAT revealed a generally high level of internal validity in studies employing advanced neurophysiological markers or high-impact academic assessments.
“The use of MMAT added an additional layer of methodological calibration, revealing a generally high level of internal validity in studies employing advanced neurophysiological markers (e.g., EEG, standardized performance metrics) (Feng et al., 2019;Katz et al., 2021;Katz & Wiseheart, 2025) or high-impact academic assessments (Gilbert et al., 2023;Burel et al., 2025;Azim et al., 2025).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Katz et al., 2021
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Cites
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“In spacing studies, the break between the learning sessions, or inter-study interval (ISI), may be minutes, days, weeks, or even months later (Cepeda et al., 2008, 2009).”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Silva Sánchez, M., Lainez Quinde, G. A., & Zambrano Vélez, W. A. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16060962
“Other operative techniques include the use of “microlearning capsules” for language teaching and musical sequences designed to leverage 24 h sleep-dependent consolidation intervals (Katz et al., 2021; Katz & Wiseheart, 2025; Melnikova & Patrina, 2025; Simmons, 2012).”
Influential
- Authors
- Katz, J. J., Ando, M., & Wiseheart, M.
- Affiliations
- York University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Wiseheart, Melody
- Venue
- Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications
- Published
- 2021-12
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-79
- ISSN
- 2365-7464 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC8665960
- OpenAlex
- W4200590205
- Cited by
- 7
- References
- 9
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1
- FWCI
- 0.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cognitive Research Principles and Implications (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (435-2020-1256)
- York University Faculty of Health
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Music Perception
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Music › Diverse Music Education Insights
- Keywords
- spacing effect, spaced learning, massed learning, verbal learning, music memory, verbatim recall, pitch accuracy, retention interval, surface features
- MeSH terms
- Cues, Humans, Learning, Memory, Mental Recall, Verbal Learning
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