Distributed practice and procedural memory consolidation in musicians’ skill learning
Abstract
This research was designed to determine whether musicians’ learning is affected by the time intervals interposed between practice sessions. Twenty-nine non-pianist musicians learned a 9-note sequence on a piano keyboard in three practice sessions that were separated by 5 min, 6 hr, or 24 hr. Significant improvements in performance accuracy were observed in Session 2 only in the group whose sessions were separated by 24 hr. There were significant increases in performance speed in Session 2 in all three practice conditions, results which likely were attributable to the inclusion of all Session 1 data in the analysis. Additional significant speed increases were observed in Session 3 only in the groups whose sessions were separated by 6 and 24 hr. These results suggest that sleep-based procedural memory consolidation may enhance performance accuracy in music skill learning, whereas enhancements in performance speed may be attributable to both wake- and sleep-based consolidation processes.
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For procedural and sensorimotor memory, validated tools such as the Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (OSATS), microlearning capsules, and rhythmic/melodic precision metrics were implemented to capture implicit memory consolidation.
“For procedural and sensorimotor memory, validated tools such as the Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (OSATS), microlearning capsules, and rhythmic/melodic precision metrics were implemented to capture implicit memory consolidation (Katz & Wiseheart, 2025;Melnikova & Patrina, 2025;Simmons, 2012;Yan et al., 2024).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Simmons, 2012
Inferential statistics, including ANOVA, t-tests, and multivariate regression, were systematically applied to establish the significance of time intervals and identify predictors of academic success.
“Regarding data analysis and reliability, inferential statistics, including ANOVA, ttests, and multivariate regression, were systematically applied to establish the significance of time intervals and identify predictors of academic success (Burel et al., 2025;Khalafi et al., 2024;Simmons, 2012).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Simmons, 2012
Moderate ratings were observed in smaller-scale experiments or those with limited control of the learning environment, primarily due to sample representativeness or protocol adherence issues.
“However, moderate ratings were observed in smallerscale experiments or those with limited control of the learning environment, primarily due to sample representativeness or protocol adherence issues (Simmons, 2012;Schuetze, 2015;Zubenko et al., 2022;Melnikova & Patrina, 2025;Chang & Wimmers, 2017).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Simmons, 2012
Some studies indicate that the distribution of practice-especially with overnight intervals-may favor the consolidation of motor and technical skills.
“Regarding implicit or procedural memory, some studies indicate that the distribution of practice-especially with overnight intervals-may favor the consolidation of motor and technical skills”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Simmons, 2012
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- Authors
- Simmons, A. L.
- Affiliations
- Texas State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Simmons, Amy L.
- ORCID
- Simmons, Amy L.
- Venue
- Journal of Research in Music Education
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-11-15
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 357-368
- ISSN
- 0022-4294 (ISSN-L)
- 1945-0095
- OpenAlex
- W2154550481
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 89.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Research in Music Education (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Music › Diverse Music Education Insights
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Music Perception
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Keywords
- distributed practice, performance accuracy, performance speed, piano learning
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