Cited by 144Cannabis and Cannabinoid ResearchAgricultural and Biological ResearchPhytochemistry Medicinal Plant Applications

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Processing and extraction methods of medicinal cannabis: a narrative review

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Lazarjani, Masoumeh Pourseyed, Young, Owen, Kebede, Lidya, Seyfoddin, Ali·2021·Journal of Cannabis Research

DOI 10.1186/s42238-021-00087-9PMC PMC8290527

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Abstract

Introduction: As the cannabis industry transitions from a black market to a legal market, product development, and methods of extraction have become a focal point. To date, more than thousands of chemical constituents have been identified from the cannabis plant, all of which possess different chemical properties that require different conditions for preservation during drying and extraction. However, scientific publications that explore these areas for the cannabis plant are currently lacking. Method: This is a narrative review paper which focuses on critiquing drying and extraction methods of Cannabis sativa L. plant. Relevant keywords such as medicinal cannabis, extraction, solvent, cannabinoids, and terpenes have been searched in PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Library (Wiley) databases. Result: To find relevant papers for this narrative review, 93 papers have been reviewed. Among them, 12 irrelevant papers were discarded. The excluded papers were either about hemp seed oil or hemp fiber and protein. Based on this review, solvent extraction is the most common method for cannabis plants. Although solventless and hydrodynamic extraction are known for their high yield and feasibility, more investigation is needed in these areas. Regarding the drying process, hang-drying is the most convenient method; however, it may be substituted by freeze-drying in the near future. Discussion: This review analyses various drying and extraction processes to guide the selection of suitable methods for various types of cannabis products and applications. This is done by outlining traditional and modern methods of drying techniques, exploring the importance of solvents for extraction, visiting solventless extraction procedures, and finally comparing conventional and alternative methods of extraction. Conclusion: In conclusion, based on the current knowledge, using organic solvents is the most convenient method for medicinal cannabis extraction. However, more research is needed for some of the drying and extraction methods. Also, developing a green and sustainable cannabis extraction method should be considered for future studies.

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Fig. 1 Air-drying (hang-drying) of the cannabis plantCC BY · PubMed Central

Fig. 2 Vegetable oils composition by fatty acid profile, inspired by Yara-Varón et al. (2017)CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig. 3 CO2 pressure–temperature phase diagram, the critical temperature is 304.13 K or 31.0 °C or 87.8°F, and the critical pressure is 7.3773 MPa or 72.8 atm or 1070 psi or 73.8 bar. (Adopted from Wikimedia commons URL: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Carbon_dioxide_pressure-temperature_phase_diagram.svg)CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig. 4 MAE process where the flask is housed in the microwave oven (Krishnan and Rajan 2017). Placing the flask containing the sample in the microwave, attached to a condenser outside of microwave to capture the solution of interest compounds after distillationCC BY · PubMed Central

Fig. 5 PLE process using organic solvent as extracting solvent coupled with supercritical antisolvent (SAS) precipitation process (1) heat exchanger for cooling, (2) pump, (3) heat exchanger for heating, (4) extractor, (5) T-mixer, (6) precipitation vessels, and (7) filter (Santos and Meireles 2015)CC BY · PubMed Central

Fig. 6 Diagram of a supercritical fluid extraction (Adopted from Wikiwand.com URL: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Supercritical_fluid_extraction#)CC BY · PubMed Central

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Testing Drying Kinetic Models and the Effect of Drying on Cannabinoids of Floral Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in a Pilot-Scale Cabinet Dryer
Lumu, S., Sarker, N., Hatterman-Valenti, H., Hammed, A., Chen, B., & Monono, E. (2025) · Journal of Biosystems Engineering · doi:10.1007/s42853-025-00255-2 · Cited by 4
“It is advisable to dry floral hemp to a moisture content (MC) of less than 12% wet basis (wb) for efficient extraction (Lazarjani et al., 2021; Valiza-dehderakhshan et al., 2021).”
Analytical techniques for screening of cannabis and derivatives from human hair specimens.
Kale, R., Chaturvedi, D., Dandekar, P., & Jain, R. (2024) · Analytical Methods · doi:10.1039/d3ay00786c · Cited by 4
Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoid Profiles Identified in Cannabis L. Crops in Peru
Wong-Salgado, P., Soares, F. L., Moya-Salazar, J., Ramírez-Méndez, J. F., Moya-Salazar, M. M., Apesteguía, A., & Castro, A. (2024) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines12020306 · Cited by 4
“We used 130 mg of dried cannabis inflorescences from each cultivar for chromatographic analysis, following international recommendations [33].”
Method
Key quality control aspects about cannabinoid-rich hemp products that a veterinarian needs to know: a practitioner’s guide
Henion, J. D., Evans, S., & Wakshlag, J. J. (2023) · Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association · doi:10.2460/javma.22.10.0470 · Cited by 5
Galenic formulations of Cannabis sativa : comparison of the chemical properties of extracts obtained by simple protocols using lipidic vehicles
Aguirre, M. E., Orallo, D. E., Suárez, P. A., & Ramírez, C. L. (2023) · Natural Product Research · doi:10.1080/14786419.2023.2184357 · Cited by 4
“In addition, the cannabinoid degradation rate was much slower in olive oil extracts than in ethanolic extracts (Citti et al. 2016; Lazarjani et al. 2021).”
Background
Comparative Study of Extraction Techniques and Concentration Effects in Olive Leaf Nanoemulsions with Application on Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)
Takadaş, F., Ozogul, F., Uçar, Y., Kuley, E., Durmuş, M., Köşker, A., Sakarya, Y., Özkütük, S., Yilmaz, N., Zhang, Z., et al. (2026) · Food Bioscience · doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2026.108459 · Cited by 3
Comprehensive review of cannabis processing stages: A comparison of techniques for obtaining high-quality extracts
Bonilla, L. G. P., King, J. W., & Gil, I. D. (2025) · Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants · doi:10.1016/j.jarmap.2025.100678 · Cited by 1
Pilot-Scale Preparation of Broad-Spectrum CBD: Extraction Optimization and Purification using Centrifugal Partition Chromatography
Wongumpornpinit, V., Temkitthawon, P., Khumpirapang, N., Paenkaew, S., Saesong, T., Boonnoun, P., Wongwad, E., Waranuch, N., & Ingkaninan, K. (2025) · Medical Cannabis and Cannabinoids · doi:10.1159/000546263 · Cited by 3
THC, CBD and minor cannabinoid CBDV differently modulate hippocampal neurons firing.
Tomagra, G., Gandlevskiy, N., Rosso, E., Bonardi, M., Binello, A., Carabelli, V., & Barge, A. (2025) · Neurotoxicology · doi:10.1016/j.neuro.2025.04.004 · Cited by 3
Impact of heterologous expression of Cannabis sativa tetraketide synthase on Phaeodactylum tricornutum metabolic profile
Sene, N., dos Santos, K. C. G., Mérindol, N., Gélinas, S.-E., Custeau, A., Awwad, F., Fantino, E., Meddeb-Mouelhi, F., Germain, H., & Desgagné-Penix, I. (2025) · Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts · doi:10.1186/s13068-025-02638-1 · Cited by 3
“Efficient protocols have been developed for the extraction of apolar compounds such as cannabinoids [26, 27].”
Transformation of Cannabidiol (CBD) during its high-temperature extraction: Studies involving model systems, hemp and functional foods containing CBD
Typek, R., Dybowski, M. P., & Dawidowicz, A. L. (2025) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.143447 · Cited by 3
Prospects in the Use of Cannabis sativa Extracts in Nanoemulsions
Vitola, I., Angulo, C., Baptista-Rosas, R. C., Esparza, L. M. A., Escalante-García, Z. Y., Villarruel‐López, A., & Jara, J. M. S. (2024) · BioTech · doi:10.3390/biotech13040053 · Cited by 3
Development and validation of HPLC and GC methods for quantification of cannabinoids and terpenes extracted by ultrasound assisted extraction technique
Lazarjani, M., Seyfoddin, A., Le, T. T., & Chen, T. (2024) · Drug Analytical Research · doi:10.22456/2527-2616.139666 · Cited by 3
“Given these advantages, UAE was selected for sample preparation in this study [10].”
Self-citation
Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis for Authentication of Natural Antioxidant Cannabidiol (CBD) from Cannabis sativa
Perini, M., Gaggiotti, A., Pianezze, S., Ziller, L., & Larcher, R. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12071421 · Cited by 3
A STEM-Based Methodology for Designing and Validating a Cannabinoid Extraction Device: Integrating Drying Kinetics and Quality Function Deployment
Márquez-Herrera, A., Reséndiz-Muñoz, J., Fernández‐Muñoz, J. L., Almazán, M. S., Cruz-Lagunas, B., Adame-Zambrano, T. D. J., Hilario, V. Á., Estrada-Martínez, J., Álvarez, M. T. Z., & Gruintal-Santos, M. A. (2026) · AgriEngineering · doi:10.3390/agriengineering8010039 · Cited by 2
“These decisions considered several ways to define the critical components and operational parameters [37].”
Combined extraction and spray-freeze-drying of Cannabis sativa Flos provides stable lyophilizate particles of cannabinoids
Kožák, J., Vázquez-Olvera, J. I., Berkenfeld, K., Rautenberg, A., & Lamprecht, A. (2026) · Journal of Cannabis Research · doi:10.1186/s42238-025-00381-w · Cited by 2
Diversity of key cannabinoids, seed nutritional compounds and their quantification methods in the upcoming Southern African cannabis sector
Mhuru, E. W., Tsakali, E., Manjeru, P., Mateva, K. I., Zishiri, R. M., Chaibva, P., Mhlahlayazi, T., & Maphosa, M. (2025) · Discover Plants. · doi:10.1007/s44372-025-00438-3 · Cited by 2
“When the flower becomes sufficiently dry, extractions must be done as immediate as possible because longer storage time between drying and processing results in loss of cannabinoids [52].”
Influential
Elevated relative humidity significantly decreases cannabinoid concentrations while delaying flowering development in Cannabis sativa L.
Corredor-Perilla, I. C., Kwon, T.-H., & Park, S.-H. (2025) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2025.1678142 · Cited by 2
“Storage moisture was maintained at approximately 80% (Das et al., 2022; Lazarjani et al., 2021).”
Essential oil fractions of hemp profiles at different hydro-distillation periods
Zheljazkov, V., Sikora, V., Astatkie, T., Dincheva, I., Aćimović, M., Visković, J., Latković, D., & Noller, J. S. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0331767 · Cited by 2
Chemometric and predictive modeling of long term cannabinoid transformation in stored Cannabis sativa resin
Fettoukh, N., Fadil, M., Stambouli, H., Bouri, A. E., Bouyoun, T., Annemer, S., Boukhaled, A., & Farah, A. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-03888-7 · Cited by 2
“…and polymeric compounds 38 ; (2) volatilization of terpenes and adsorption of cannabinoids to packaging materials may reduce recoverable mass 22,35 ; (3) analytical limitations (GC/FID) precluded quantification of acidic precursors (THCA, CBDA) and non-volatile degradation byproducts 31,34 .”
Optimizing Cannabis Sample Preparation to Reduce Chloroform Usage: A Comparison of I‐Optimal, D‐Optimal, and A‐Optimal Designs
Monton, C., Charoenchai, L., Suksaeree, J., & Songsak, T. (2025) · Journal of Separation Science · doi:10.1002/jssc.70278 · Cited by 2
Chemical characterization of hemp seeds ( Cannabis sativa L.) cultivated in the Ecuadorian Andes
García, H. F. S., Delgado, L. F. V., de la Rosa, A., Crisanto, S. L. F. S., Londoño‐Larrea, P., Gonzalez-Benitez, D., & Montúfar-Delgado, C. (2025) · CyTA - Journal of Food · doi:10.1080/19476337.2025.2520539 · Cited by 1
“Lipid analysis (AOAC 2003.05) was carried out via solvent extraction via the Soxhlet method, which employs 5 g of hemp seed; lipids were extracted with benzene, and after solvent evaporation, the fat content was determined by weight difference.”
Influential
Utilization of Industrial Hemp Biomass Waste (I): Stability of Cannabidiol in Pre and Post- Encapsulation States
Crew, J., Wu, Y., Mu, R. R., & Patras, A. (2025) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules30102116 · Cited by 2
“Furthermore, when evaluating different extraction methodologies, ethanol used in conjunction with DM was observed to extraction (UAE) [11].”
Phytochemical Composition and Corrosion Inhibitory Efficiency of Tinospora cordifolia and Senna alata Plant Extracts on Mild Steel in Acidic Media
Phuyal, A., Poudel, M. K., Bhandari, R., Budhathoki, S., Baral, D., Bhattarai, A., & Chaudhary, N. K. (2024) · Butwal Campus Journal · doi:10.3126/bcj.v7i2.73175 · Cited by 2
“Afterward, the powdered sample was dried in a laboratory oven at 37°C for two days to eliminate moisture prior to the extraction process (Lazarjani et al., 2021).”
Revolutionizing Metabolic Engineering in Cannabis sativa L.: Harnessing the Power of Hairy Root Culture
Injamum-Ul-Hoque, M., Rahman, M. M., Howlader, N. C., Tavakoli, S., Rahman, M. M., Imran, S., Bulle, M., Ahsan, S. M., & Choi, H. W. (2025) · Phyton · doi:10.32604/phyton.2025.069827 · Cited by 2
“The therapeutic potential of C. sativa has been explored for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancer, antioxidant, neuroprotective, and gastrointestinal benefits, as well as its use in epilepsy management [3].”
Temperature Control Minimizes Wax-Derived Alkane Carryover in Hydrocarbon Cannabis Extraction
Sosa, M. E., Paryani, T. R., Reed, R., Siegel, A. W., Ai, Q., Lee, E., Radford, D., Martin, T. J., Koby, K. A., & Oswald, I. W. H. (2026) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.5c13451 · Cited by 1
Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients in Medical Cannabis: Manufacturer Profiling, Standardization Challenges, and Technological Compatibility
Vyshnevskа, L., Yaromiy, M. V., Пестун, І. В., Georgiev, K. D., Slavov, I. Z., & Коshovyi, O. (2026) · Scientia Pharmaceutica · doi:10.3390/scipharm94020041 · Cited by 1
“A number of articles are devoted to extraction methods [21–23], analytical techniques [24], and quality control [25].”
Pilot study on cannabis-induced alterations in platelet function: implications for transfusion medicine.
Laflamme, G., Hamzeh-Cognasse, H., Cognasse, F., & Loubaki, L. (2026) · Platelets · doi:10.1080/09537104.2026.2644368 · Cited by 1
CANNABIGEROL AND CANNABIGEROLIC ACID: BIOSYNTHESIS, PHARMACOLOGY, AND TRANSLATIONAL PERSPECTIVES.? A CRITICAL REVIEW
Fuentes, G., Echarte, S. M., Parise, A., Ramírez, C. L., & Orallo, D. (2026) · Phytomedicine Plus · doi:10.1016/j.phyplu.2026.100965 · Cited by 1
A molecular dynamics solvation study of CBD and Δ 9 -THC in sc C O 2
Vásquez, F. J., & Orozco, G. A. (2025) · Journal of Molecular Liquids · doi:10.1016/j.molliq.2025.129094 · Cited by 1
Identification of Reference Values Intended to be Protective of Human Health for Potential Contaminants in Hemp Plant Material and Hemp-Based Products: Part II. Pesticides and Solvents
Smith, M. L., Bernal, A. J., Weil, R. E., McKinney, W. J., & Hoeng, J. (2025) · Current Opinion in Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.cotox.2025.100555 · Cited by 1
Therapeutic potential of cannabidiol-rich Cannabis sativa to mitigate the severity of inflammation and pain: A pre-clinical study
Singh, M. K., Sen, S., Singh, S., Aftab, N., Kumar, B., Gupta, N., Tandon, S., Bawankule, D. U., & Verma, R. S. (2025) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2025.120856 · Cited by 1
Phytochemical Profile, Extraction and Characterization of Bioactive Compounds from Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Felina 32 Variety
Haczkiewicz, M., Świtalska, M., Łyczko, J., Wietrzyk, J., & Gliszczyńska, A. (2025) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules30204148 · Cited by 1
“…extract weight was observed after extraction with hexane at 25 ◦ C, amounting to 49% of the original extract mass. Hexane, being a non-polar solvent, promotes the extraction of waxes and lipid-like substances [19]; thus, although the loss was substantial, it is consistent with expectations [20].”
Sustainable extraction of cannabidiol using alkaline leaching coupled with green deep eutectic solvents
Haidery, Q. U. A., Shen, Y., Niu, J., Yan, C., Xu, Z., Han, B., Wang, J., Wang, Y., Ma, X., & Zheng, W. (2025) · Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.bcab.2025.103636 · Cited by 1
Leaching of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa flowers using a pH-controlled aqueous solvent: Study of important parameters
Ataolahi, S., Lu, H. T., Li, W., Deseo, M. A., Stevens, G. W., Bacic, A., Doblin, M. S., & Mumford, K. A. (2025) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2025.133675 · Cited by 1
A Systematic Review: Assessment of the Metabolomic Profile and Anti-Nutritional Factors of Cannabis sativa as a Feed Additive for Ruminants
Ntsoane, T., Nemukondeni, N., & Nemadodzi, L. E. (2024) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo14120712 · Cited by 1
“Cannabis sativa , commonly known as marijuana (Figure 1), is a herbaceous flowering annual plant that belongs to the family of Cannabaceae and the genus Cannabis [1,2].”
The Elusive Truth of Cannabinoids for Rheumatic Pain
Clarke, H. A., Miles, S. J., Peer, M., & Fitzcharles, M. (2024) · Current Rheumatology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11926-024-01162-9
“The product may then be reconstituted in a carrier liquid such as edible oils of olive, cocoFnut, or hemp [44].”
Extracción verde y eficiente de cannabidiol, tetrahidrocannabinol, cannabinol y cannabigerol de Cannabis sativa empleando disolventes eutécticos profundos naturales basados en mentol
Delgado-Rodríguez, J., Romero, P. A. A., & Benítez, R. B. (2023) · Ciencia e Ingeniería Neogranadina · doi:10.18359/rcin.6588 · Cited by 1
“Estas metodologías deben estar enmarcadas en la química verde y la economía circular [12].”
Background
Analytical strategies for herbal Cannabis samples in forensic applications: A comprehensive review
Slosse, A., Durme, F. V., Eliaerts, J., Samyn, N., Mangelings, D., & Heyden, Y. V. (2023) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Forensic Science · doi:10.1002/wfs2.1479 · Cited by 2
Recovery of cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa flowers using modifier/water leaching method
Lu, H. T., Li, W., Deseo, M. A., Stevens, G. W., Bacic, A., Doblin, M. S., & Mumford, K. A. (2025) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2025.136141 · Cited by 1
Integrated Extraction and Purification of High-Purity Cannabidiol from Industrial Hemp: Continuous Chromatography and Scale-Up Considerations
Sui, X., he, D., Li, P., Zhu, L., Xie, Y., Ye, T., Zhou, L., & Xie, S. (2026) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules31213872
The Dynamics of Industrial Hemp within Circular Economy Systems: A Review
Zishiri, R. M., Mhuru, E. W., Maphosa, M., Parwada, C., Mhlahlayazi, M., Haripo, T. T., & Mutetwa, M. (2026) · Agricultural Reviews · doi:10.18805/ag.rf-441
“They are made from leaves, seed and flower extracts (Lazarjani et al ., 2021).”
Phytocannabinoid cannabidiol (CBD) in neurodegenerative diseases: From polypharmacology to drug development
Zhang, B., Nan, J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, B., Ke, C., Wang, W., Wu, T., Xia, J., Yang, F., He, M., et al. (2026) · European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.ejmech.2026.119360
Mechanistic Insights into Solvent-Dependent Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Hemp Phytochemicals: From Decarboxylation to Oil-Based Systems
Jaroenkunpanit, P., Wungsintaweekul, J., & Chetpattananondh, P. (2026) · ACS Food Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acsfoodscitech.6c00127
Application of liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry detection for the determination of twelve cannabinoids in a feasibility study to produce a pharmacologically active ingredient from seized Cannabis sativa L. (marijuana).
Ortiz, R. S., Pereira, D., Mariotti, K. D. C., & Camargo, F. A. D. O. (2026) · Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2026.117665
Mitochondrial dysfunction and autophagy activation underlie NK cell impairment induced by Cannabis
Bolduc, A., Tremblay, T., Almutairi, M., Semlali, A., & Loubaki, L. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0350750
“The cannabis joint extract (CJE) was prepared using a passive extraction method [21].”

Authors: Lazarjani, M. P., Young, O., Kebede, L., & Seyfoddin, A.
Affiliations: Auckland University of Technology (NZ)
Corresponding author: Seyfoddin, Ali
ORCID: Young, Owen
Seyfoddin, Ali
Venue: Journal of Cannabis Research
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2021-07-19
Volume: 3
Issue: 1
Pages: 32-32
ISSN: 2522-5782 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/s42238-021-00087-9
PMC: PMC8290527
OpenAlex: W3184094075
Cited by: 144
References: 62
Citations by year: 2026: 23 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 19
FWCI: 2.31
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 (vor)
Locations: Journal of Cannabis Research (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Tuwhera (Auckland University of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Agricultural and Biological Research
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Phytochemistry Medicinal Plant Applications
Keywords: medical cannabis, Cannabis sativa, drying methods, solvent extraction, solvent-free extraction, cannabinoids, terpenes, freeze-drying, green extraction

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Processing and extraction methods of medicinal cannabis: a narrative review

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