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The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems
Open accessAbstract
The effects of computer animations and mental animation on people's mental models of a mechanical system are examined. In 3 experiments, students learned how a mechanical system works from various instructional treatments including viewing a static diagram of the machine, predicting motion from static diagrams, viewing computer animations, and viewing static and animated diagrams accompanied by verbal commentaries. Although students' understanding of the system was improved by viewing both static and animated diagrams, there was no evidence that animated diagrams led to superior understanding of dynamic processes compared to static diagrams. Comprehension of diagrams was enhanced by asking students questions that required them to predict the behavior of the machine from static diagrams and by providing them with a verbal description of the dynamic processes. This article proposes that predicting motion from static diagrams engages students' mental animation processes, including spatial visualization, and provides them with information about what they do and do not understand about how the machine works. Verbal instruction provides information that is not easily communicated in graphics and directs students' attention to the relevant information in static and animated diagrams. The research suggests that an understanding of students' mental animation abilities is an important component of a theory of learning from external animations.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Across three experiments, students learned about a flushing cistern from static diagrams, phase diagrams, animations, and verbal instruction, but animated diagrams were not superior to static diagrams for understanding dynamic processes. Prediction from static diagrams and verbal instruction improved comprehension, while spatial ability related to some outcomes without interacting with instructional condition.
Key findings
- Animated diagrams showed no advantage over static diagrams. In Experiment 2, static media produced marginally more complete causal descriptions than animated media (M = 14.48 vs. 13.26), F(1, 92) = 3.35, p = .07; in Experiment 3, animation and three phase diagrams did not differ, though both outperformed a single static diagram.
- Predicting system behavior from static phase diagrams improved causal understanding. In Experiment 1, predictors described more correct causal steps than non-predictors (M = 11.02 vs. 9.02), F(1, 92) = 10.97, p = .001; in Experiment 2, predictors also described more steps (M = 14.92 vs. 12.82), F(1, 92) = 10.70, p < .01.
- Verbal instruction substantially improved causal descriptions. Combined groups described: static diagrams only M = 7.09 steps; kinematic diagrams M = 9.51; diagrams plus verbal M = 13.27; diagrams plus verbal plus prediction M = 14.21, F(1, 244) = 73.26, p < .001.
- High-spatial students generally performed better on causal descriptions and troubleshooting in Experiments 1 and 2, but spatial ability did not interact significantly with instructional treatments; functional understanding was unaffected by experimental manipulations (Exp 1 M = 3.12, Exp 2 M = 3.28).
Methods
- Three experiments with University of California, Santa Barbara undergraduates: Experiment 1 (N = 100), Experiment 2 (N = 100), and Experiment 3 (N = 58). Participants learned how a flushing cistern works from combinations of a static labeled diagram, three phase diagrams, computer animation, verbal commentary/text, and prediction questions.
- Comprehension was measured by written or oral descriptions of the causal chain, scored against 19 steps; troubleshooting questions about possible faults; and function questions in Experiments 1 and 2. Spatial ability was measured with the Paper Folding test.
- Main analyses compared instructional conditions, prediction, animation/static media, and spatial ability, using ANOVA and post hoc comparisons.
Limitations
- The paper states that the animations may not have been optimal, that interactive animations allowing pace control might be more effective, that visual attention limits learning from simultaneous motions, and that viewing animation is passive. It also notes low variance in physics training and practical experience and that participants were novices.
- The paper states that one phase-diagram limitation is that participants may not have been able to interpolate between the two stages shown, though all stages were shown in the animation.
- Evident from the text: the prediction effect on troubleshooting was found in Experiment 1 but not replicated in Experiment 2; functional understanding showed no experimental effects; and direct evidence for internal visualization comes from a related eye-tracking study, not the reported experiments.
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Claims the paper makes
63 Own result · 50 Not checked yet · 39 Own interpretation · 12 Own method · 5 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants who predicted how the system worked also included more steps in their descriptions of the causal chain (M = 11.02,SD = 3.55) than those who did not predict: M = 9.02, SD = 4.01; F(1, 92) = 10.97,p = .001.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spatial ability did not significantly affect these measures (F < 1).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Performance in the prediction phase of the experiment (for those in the prediction and combination conditions) indicated that participants could accurately infer some aspects of the behavior of a complex mechanical system from the three phase diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The 19-step causal chain compiled by the authors is a correct and complete description of the flushing cistern's operation.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no significant difference in these gain scores between those who received the static instruction (gain score = 6.32,SD = 3.59) and those who received the animated instruction (gain score = 5.60, SD = 3.17; F < 1).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no evidence for a negative effect of prediction of system behavior.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spatial ability did not significantly affect performance.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Causal Descriptions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Prediction of system behavior from the three static diagrams was not significantly affected by spatial ability.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As in Experiment 1, none of the experimental conditions affected performance on the function questions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, the effects of spatial ability on this measure did not reach statistical significance.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting Performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Figure 3, there was a significant difference between the experimental conditions in number of steps described: F(2, 55) = 7.37, MSE = 7.12, p = .002.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Causal Descriptions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
- Probably not a substantial claim. 19
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Comprehension of diagrams was enhanced by asking students questions that required them to predict the behavior of the machine from static diagrams and by providing them with a verbal description of the dynamic processes.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although students' understanding of the system was improved by viewing both static and animated diagrams, there was no evidence that animated diagrams led to superior understanding of dynamic processes compared to static diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants rarely described incorrect steps in the causal chain (less than 1 incorrect step), and they almost always reported steps in the correct causal order.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Scoring
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The interaction between the experimental treatments was not significant (F < 1), indicating that the effects of the two manipulations were independent.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In response to the first question, which asked them to explain the causal chain of events in the behavior of the system, they described 7.88 correct steps on average (SD = 2.45) and only 0.31 incorrect steps (SD = 0.57) in the causal chain, and they answered 3.00 of the other four prediction questions correctly (SD = 1.00).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The 19-step causal chain compiled by the authors is a correct and complete description of the flushing cistern's operation.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In response to the first prediction question, participants in the prediction conditions described on average 8.1 correct steps in the causal chain (SD = 2.28), and they answered 2.76 (SD = 1.02) of the other four prediction questions correctly.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Post hoc (Scheffe) tests indicated that performance of students in the control condition was significantly worse than that of students who saw the three phase diagrams (p = .004)and that of students who saw the animation (p = .01),but the phase-diagrams and animation conditions did not differ.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Causal Descriptions
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Post hoc (Scheffe) tests indicated a marginally significant difference between performance of those who saw the three phase diagrams and those in the control condition (p = .087),but performance on the animation condition was not significantly different from the other conditions”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting Performance
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference between these groups was highly significant, F(1, 244) = 73.26,MSE 10.70, p < .001;post hoc (Scheffe) comparisons indicated that the groups were all significantly different from each other (p < .01).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Figure 3, there was no significant advantage of viewing the animation; in fact, there was a marginally significant trend for those who studied the static media (M = 14.48,SD = 3.35) to write more complete descriptions of the causal chain than those who studied the animated media: M = 13.26,MSE = 10.60,SD = 3.50; F(1, 92) = 3.35, p = .07.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using this classification, the static diagrams group described, on average, 7.09 (SD = 2.84, N = 43) steps in the causal chain; the kinematics diagrams group described 9.51 steps (SD = 2.62, N = 65); the diagrams plus verbal instruction group described 13.27 steps (SD = 3.93, N = 76); and the diagrams plus verbal plus prediction group described 14.21 steps (SD = 3.27, N = 75).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Comparison of the three-diagrams condition of Experiment 3 with that of the prediction condition of Experiment 1 suggests that asking prediction questions in addition to showing the three phase diagrams may have an additional small effect on comprehension, but this difference did not reach statistical significance in our experiments.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the refilling mechanism, which students understood well even without verbal instruction, involved highly salient movements of the float and float arm, which are relatively large components.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These differences were evident in students' ability to describe the causal chain of events from memory and in their ability to solve troubleshooting problems from memory.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this study, we collected data on students' formal education in physics and informal practical experience with machines and found no significant effects of these variables.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“Physics training and practical experience were not significantly correlated with any of the dependent measures of the experiments.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
In the paper
“Tversky et al. (2002) concluded that there was no evidence for an advantage of animations over static media.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tversky et al. (2002)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This article proposes that predicting motion from static diagrams engages students' mental animation processes, including spatial visualization, and provides them with information about what they do and do not understand about how the machine works.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The flushing cistern is a representative complex mechanical system for studying how people learn from animations and static diagrams.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Verbal instruction provides information that is not easily communicated in graphics and directs students' attention to the relevant information in static and animated diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Isaak and Just (1995) found that high-spatial individuals perceived animations of dynamic events more accurately, and they argued that these individuals had more spatial working memory resources available to mentally integrate different components of motion (i.e., translation and rotation) of objects in the animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Isaak and Just (1995)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The animation was designed to conform to the prescriptions of previous research on effective animations (Faraday & Sutcliffe, 1996, 1997;Mayer & Moreno, 1998;Mayer & Sims, 1994;Mousavi et al., 1995).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > EXPERIMENT 1
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Faraday & Sutcliffe, 1996, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Mayer & Moreno, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Mayer & Sims, 1994
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Rozenblit and Keil (2002) found that people have false confidence with respect to understanding of causal systems.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rozenblit and Keil (2002)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were no significant differences between the groups in spatial ability, physics background, or practical experience (F < 1 in all cases).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Method Participants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Therefore, mental animation ability is highly related to spatial ability (Hegarty & Kozhevnikov, 1999;Hegarty & Sims, 1994;Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997) but not verbal ability, and mental animation interferes more with a visual-spatial working memory load than with a verbal working memory load (Sims & Hegarty, 1997).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Kozhevnikov, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Sims, 1994
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two raters independently scored the responses of 20 participants and agreed on the scoring of 83% of the propositions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Scoring
plainn = 20- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Finally, students spontaneously describe the behavior of mechanical systems when they view static diagrams that are annotated with arrows showing the movement of parts of the system (Heiser & Tversky, 2002).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Heiser & Tversky, 2002
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, people may know that every other gear in a gear chain moves in the same direction, so they do not need to use visualization processes to infer this information (Schwartz & Black, 1996).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schwartz & Black, 1996
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, people can be quite successful in infer- ring the behavior of a machine from a static diagram when they are explicitly asked to predict how system components will move (e.g., Hegarty, 1992).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty, 1992
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“People also construct dynamic mental models of machines when they read an accompanying text describing the behavior of a machine (Hegarty & Just, 1993).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Just, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The function questions measured participants' ability to infer the purpose of each component in the system, as opposed to its behavior.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > EXPERIMENT 1
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two people independently scored 20 of the descriptions (chosen at random from the different experimental conditions); the correlations between their scores were .93 for number of correct steps, .78 for number of incorrect steps, and .94for number of correct steps in order.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Scoring
plaincorrelationaln = 2- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two raters independently scored the responses of 30 participants on this measure and agreed on the scoring of 91% of responses.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Scoring
plainn = 30- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Twenty-five participants were assigned to each of the four conditions on the basis of performance on the Paper Folding test (Ekstrom, French, Harman, & Derman, 1976) to ensure that the spatial abilities of participants in the four groups was about equal.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Method Participants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ekstrom et al., 1976
plainn = 5- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Describing the behavior of the system is a measure of whether the individual has inferred this behavior from the static diagrams (in the control and prediction conditions) or comprehended the animation and commentary (in the animation condition).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > EXPERIMENT 1
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this experiment, we also controlled the amount of time for which the animations and the texts and diagrams were available, to equate exposure to the two sets of learning materials and to ensure that participants took time to study the materials thoroughly.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > EXPERIMENT 2
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This result indicates that both groups learned from the instruction, and the amount of learning did not depend on the format of instruction (whether the diagram was static or animated).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were no significant differences between the groups in spatial ability, physics education, or practical experience.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plainn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The groups did not differ significantly in spatial ability, physics training, or practical experience (F < 1 in all cases).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Method Participants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, asking students to generate a causal description and answer questions about device behavior while viewing phase diagrams improved comprehension of the device, as measured by the causal chain and troubleshooting questions, and the effects of this manipulation were independent of the effects of viewing an animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Students who received kinematic diagrams (either 3 phases or an animation) demonstrated more mechanistic understanding.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These three diagrams clearly provided more information about the behavior of the system than a single static diagram, although further inference is also necessary to generate a full causal description of the system from the static diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that students who received the static media were able to construct a dynamic mental model of the system on the basis of the verbal description of motion in the text and that viewing an external animation is not essential to students' learning.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, students who predicted how the system worked also saw diagrams of three critical phases in the flushing and refilling of the cistern, whereas students in the other conditions did not study these three diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, people can understand some aspects of the behavior of a mechanical system from an animation alone, without a verbal commentary, and it can be concluded that participants in Experiments 1 and 2 gained some understanding from the animations and did not learn exclusively from the verbal description of motion.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, it can be concluded that this group gained some understanding of the function of the two subsystems (or drew on their everyday knowledge of how toilets work), but did not gain a mechanistic understanding of these systems.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They attributed this partially to confusion between function and mechanism (i.e., people judged themselves as understanding a machine if they knew the functions of the different subcomponents).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rozenblit & Keil, 2002
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One possible reason for the misperception of animations and real events is that these events often occur very quickly.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“However, this result was confined to relatively simple mechanical events and did not scale up to more complex situations (Kaiser et al., 1992).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaiser et al., 1992
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This mechanism involved relatively small movements of the siphon disks, which might not be easily noticed in an animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When a machine is in motion, many of its components move at once; therefore, a realistic animation of a machine shows these simultaneous motions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, people learn more from information presentations if they first participate in activities that activate their knowledge relevant to the topic of the presentation (Britton & Graesser, 1996;Kintsch et al., 1993;McNamara et al., 1996) or generate the important distinctions relevant to understanding the topic (Schwartz & Bransford, 1998).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Britton & Graesser, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Kintsch et al., 1993
- Not checked yetcites McNamara et al., 1996 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although diagrams can provide information about kinematics (i.e., the geometry of movement in a mechanical system), an animated or static diagram alone can only partially communicate the causal relations between events or the dynamic forces that underlie these causal relations (Oestermeier & Hesse, 2000).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Oestermeier & Hesse, 2000
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In complex machines, several components move at once.For example, in the case of the flushing cistern, there are two chains of events that overlap in time: one that flushes water out of the cistern and the other that refills the cistern.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, Rozenblit and Keil (2002) found that people overestimated their understanding of how everyday mechanical devices worked.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rozenblit & Keil, 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Kaiser, Proffitt, and Anderson (1985) found that people can sometimes recognize the correct trajectory of a moving object (such as a ball emerging from a curved tube) in an animation, although they cannot predict the correct trajectory.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaiser, Proffitt, & Anderson, 1985
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Classifying individuals as low or high spatial on the basis of a median split involves converting a ratio scale to a categorical measure and, therefore, losing information.This was done for ease of exposition.We also conducted regression analyses using students' scores on the Paper Folding test, and the conclusions from these analyses did not differ from those reported for any of the experiments”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, high-and low-spatial individuals may not differ in their ability to interpolate motion from different phase diagrams, suggesting that this might be a particularly effective way to communicate the kinematics of a device for students of all ability levels.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there was low variance in these measures, and our students were novices.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The flushing cistern is a representative complex mechanical system for studying how people learn from animations and static diagrams.
“In this article, we examine the effects of computer animations and mental animation on people's comprehension of a relatively complex mechanical system, the flushing cistern (shown in Figure 1).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 19-step causal chain compiled by the authors is a correct and complete description of the flushing cistern's operation.
“We compiled a list of 19 steps in the causal chain of events that results when the handle of the flushing cistern is pushed down.3 These were either explicitly stated or implied in the commentary that accompanied the animation, and each step was mentioned by at least one fifth of the participants.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The flushing cistern's operation involves two causal chains of events that occur in tandem but are temporarily dependent on each other, making it a challenging comprehension task.
“Understanding this mechanism is a challenging comprehension task because its operation involves two causal chains of events that occur in tandem but are also temporarily dependent on each other.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The number of steps in the causal chain is a valid measure of understanding of the mechanical system.
“we compared their answers to the first prediction question to their written causal descriptions of the system.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The troubleshooting questions measure the ability to apply causal understanding of the system to solve novel problems.
“Performance on the troubleshooting questions mirrored performance on the descriptions of system behavior, indicating that students could also apply their causal understanding of the system to solve novel problems.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Force is not a visible property.
“Force is not a visible property”
The paper relies on this without support.
Language can express all types of information relevant to understanding a mechanical system, including kinematics, causal relations, and dynamic forces.
“In contrast, language can express all of these types of information.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Reading of static diagrams and text is self-paced and interactive.
“In contrast, reading of static diagrams and text is self-paced and interactive in the sense that one can slow down or reread when one encounters a difficult passage.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Our visual attention is typically focused on only one location at a time.
“our visual attention is typically focused on only one location at a time”
The paper relies on this without support.
Viewing an animation is a passive process.
“Finally, viewing an animation is a passive process.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The three phase diagrams represent the main events in students' mental representations of how the machine functions.
“these three phases represent the main events in students' mental representations of how the machine functions”
The paper relies on this without support.
The flushing mechanism depends on an appreciation of the forces underlying the operation of a siphon.
“which depends on an appreciation of the forces underlying the operation of a siphon”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“The beneficial effect on learning of prompting learners to predict the next step in a process has been replicated in several multimedia studies (Hegarty et al. 2003;Mayer et al. 2003;Moreno et al. 2001).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Hegarty et al. 2003
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 92) = 9.19, p < .001”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .003
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 92) = 6.05, p = .01”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
Reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .016
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 92) = 6.05reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .016
“F(1, 92) = 6.05, p = .01”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 92) = 9.19reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .003
“F(1, 92) = 9.19, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 10.97reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001
“F(1, 92) = 10.97,p = .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 8.66reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .004
“F(1, 92) = 8.66, p < .01”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 3.35reported p = .07 · recomputed p = .070
“F(1, 92) = 3.35, p = .07”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 10.7reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .002
“F(1, 92) = 10.70,p < .01”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 5.03reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .027
“F(1, 92) = 5.03, p < .05”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
“Fifty-eight undergraduate students at the University of California Santa Barbara participated in the study to fulfill an introductory psychology course requirement.Twenty participants were assigned to each of the four conditions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
Reported 58 · recomputed 80
Citations
Cites
Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach
Paivio, A. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 5,087
Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think
Card, S. K., Mackinlay, J. D., & Shneiderman, B. (1999) · Cited by 3,935
Why a Diagram is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words
Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6708.1987.tb00863.x · Cited by 3,855
Eliciting Self‐Explanations Improves Understanding
Michelene, T. H., Leeuw, N. D., Chiu, M., & Lavancher, C. (1994) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(94)90016-7 · Cited by 2,492
Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Bétrancourt, M. (2002) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1006/ijhc.2002.1017 · Cited by 1,677
The generation effect: delineation of a phenomenon
Slamecka, N. J., & Graf, P. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.6.592 · Cited by 1,659
Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions?
Mayer, R. E. (1997) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1 · Cited by 1,533
McNamara, D. S., Kintsch, E., Songer, N. B., & Kintsch, W. (1996) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1401_1 · Cited by 1,341
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.312 · Cited by 1,315 · cited 8×
“The animation was designed to conform to the prescriptions of previous research on effective animations (Faraday & Sutcliffe, 1996, 1997; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Mousavi et al., 1995).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEvent structure in perception and conception.
Zacks, J. M., & Tversky, B. (2001) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.3 · Cited by 1,208
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Hegarty, M. & Kozhevnikov, M. (1999). Spatial abilities, working memory and mechanical reasoning. In J. Gero & B. Tversky (Eds.), Visual and spatial reasoning in design (pp. 221-239). Sydney, Australia: Key Centre of Design and Cognition.
- Hegarty M., 1999, Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 8, 119
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Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 402
The role of process information in narrations while learning with animations and static pictures
Stebner, F., Kühl, T., Höffler, T. N., Wirth, J., & Ayres, P. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.11.001 · Cited by 51
“, 2011) because of their relevance, and therefore support learners in constructing a dynamic mental model of the content (Hegarty et al., 2003; Schnotz & Lowe, 2008).”
BackgroundKorat, O., Levin, I., Atishkin, S., & Turgeman, M. (2013) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-013-9474-z · Cited by 50
Improving Students’ Diagram Comprehension with Classroom Instruction
Cromley, J. G., Perez, T., Fitzhugh, S. L., Newcombe, N. S., Wills, T. W., & Tanaka, J. C. (2013) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2012.745465 · Cited by 53
“Results are mixed: Hegarty found significantly better scores on transfer measures of mechanical diagram comprehension for high-spatial participants versus low-spatial participants (Hegarty & Just, 1993; Hegarty et al., 2003; Hegarty & Sims, 1994; Kozhevnikov et al., 2007) and Ozcelik, Karakus, Kursun, and Cagiltay (20…”
BackgroundInfluentialImhof, B., Scheiter, K., Edelmann, J., & Gerjets, P. H. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.10.006 · Cited by 48
Höffler, T. N., Koć‐Januchta, M., & Leutner, D. (2016) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3300 · Cited by 47
Boucheix, J., & Forestier, C. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.029 · Cited by 46
Iserbyt, P., Charlier, N., & Mols, L. (2014) · Resuscitation · doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2014.01.018 · Cited by 46
Ploetzner, R., Berney, S., & Bétrancourt, M. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09541-w · Cited by 63
Learning from animation enabled by collaboration
Rebetez, C., Bétrancourt, M., Sangin, M., & Dillenbourg, P. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9117-6 · Cited by 51
“Several studies, designed in agreement with principles derived from multimedia learning theories, suggest that animated graphics may not improve learning compared to their static equivalents (e.g., Catrambone and Seay 2002; Hegarty et al. 2003; Lowe 2003).”
BackgroundInternal representations, external representations and ergonomics: towards a theoretical integration
Richardson, M., & Ball, L. J. (2008) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/14639220802368872 · Cited by 51
“Research previously presented supports this (e.g. Schwartz and Black 1996, Hegarty et al. 2003).”
BackgroundResultMinor, E. C., Desimone, L. M., Caines, J., & Hochberg, E. D. (2016) · Education Policy Analysis Archives · doi:10.14507/epaa.24.2365 · Cited by 68
“The visualizations component was based on research indicating that middle school students often have trouble decoding graphs, charts, and other visualizations (e.g., Hegarty et al., 2003) (Merlino et al., 2008), and it was designed to improve student spatial reasoning skills.”
MethodMolecular Biology Meets the Learning Sciences: Visualizations in Education and Outreach
Jenkinson, J. (2018) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2018.08.020 · Cited by 57
When do spatial abilities support student comprehension of STEM visualizations?
Hinze, S. R., Williamson, V. M., Shultz, M. J., Williamson, K. C., Deslongchamps, G., & Rapp, D. N. (2013) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-013-0539-3 · Cited by 46
Investigating gender and spatial measurements in instructional animation research
Wong, M., Castro-Alonso, J. C., Ayres, P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.017 · Cited by 47
Effects of detailed illustrations on science learning: an eye-tracking study
Lin, Y. Y., Holmqvist, K., Miyoshi, K., & Ashida, H. (2017) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-017-9417-1 · Cited by 44
Does segmenting principle counteract modality principle in instructional animation?
Cheon, J., Crooks, S. M., & Chung, S. (2013) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12021 · Cited by 42
Implications of Designing Instructional Video Using Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.
Ibrahim, M. M. (2012) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 38
Yu, C.-J., Wu, C.-J., & Su, J.-H. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.01.005 · Cited by 48
“The step-by-step question was translated from Hegarty et al. (2003) into Chinese.”
BackgroundMethodExpertise reversal for different forms of instructional designs in dynamic visual representations
Khacharem, A., Zoudji, B., & Kalyuga, S. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12167 · Cited by 41
H’mida, C., Degrenne, O., Souissi, N., Rekik, G., Trabelsi, K., Jarraya, M., Bragazzi, N. L., & Khacharem, A. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17239067 · Cited by 48
“[21] examined people’s comprehension of a flushing cistern after they viewed three static pictures.”
BackgroundComputer-Mediated Technologies
Graesser, A. C., Chipman, P., & King, B. G. (2007) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch17 · Cited by 39
Lectures and Simulation Laboratories to improve Learners’ Conceptual Understanding
Brophy, S. P., Magana, A. J., & Strachan, A. H. (2013) · AEE Journal · Cited by 38
Lin, C.-Y., & Wu, H. (2021) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/d0rp00308e · Cited by 50
“In the long debate of dynamic versus static visualizations, the question of whether one modality is more effective than another in teaching and learning has been explored, and mixed conclusions have been reached (Tversky et al., 2002; Hegarty et al., 2003; Hegarty, 2004; Mayer et al., 2005; McElhaney et al., 2015; Ber…”
BackgroundInfluentialForbus, K. D. (2010) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.115 · Cited by 37
Using Drawing Technology to Assess Students’ Visualizations of Chemical Reaction Processes
Chang, H., Quintana, C., & Krajcik, J. S. (2013) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-013-9468-2 · Cited by 37
“As studies point out the possibility that dynamic mental representations exist (Freyd 1987; Hegarty 1992; Hegarty et al. 2003), a drawing tool with animation functions allows students to express their ideas or externalize their dynamic mental images about those chemical processes and dynamic…”
BackgroundThe role of prediction in the teaching and learning of mathematics
Lim, K. H., Buendía, G., Kim, O.-K., Cordero, F., & Kasmer, L. (2010) · International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology · doi:10.1080/00207391003605239 · Cited by 37
“According to Hegarty, Kriz and Cate [19], prediction induces people to activate their prior knowledge and to articulate their understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.”
BackgroundVerbalizing events: Overshadowing or facilitation?
Huff, M., & Schwan, S. (2008) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.36.2.392 · Cited by 37
Interactive distance education: a cognitive load perspective
Kalyuga, S. (2012) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-012-9060-4 · Cited by 41
“…learning from dynamic visualizations are prompting learners to predict the next step in animated processes before the explanation continues (Hegarty et al. 2003), using pre-animation questions (Mayer et al. 2003), or prompting learners to imagine procedures after viewing dynamic…”
BackgroundMethodImproving learning from animated soccer scenes: Evidence for the expertise reversal effect
Khacharem, A., Zoudji, B., Spanjers, I. A. E., & Kalyuga, S. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.021 · Cited by 36
Múñez, D., Orrantia, J., & Rosales, J. (2013) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2012.715095 · Cited by 40
Waters, J. R., Meter, P. N. V., Perrotti, W., Drogo, S., & Cyr, R. J. (2011) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00030.2009 · Cited by 35
Ploetzner, R., & Fillisch, B. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.10.002 · Cited by 36
Medical professionalism videos on YouTube: Content exploration and appraisal of user engagement
Ahmad, T., Sattar, K., & Akram, A. (2020) · Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.06.007 · Cited by 34
“YouTube videos contain misrepresentative health-related information due to the absence of evaluative analysis for any uploaded content within, prior uploading (Ibrahim, 2012; Hegarty et al., 2003).”
BackgroundRyoo, K., & Bedell, K. (2017) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21405 · Cited by 34
Rekik, G., Khacharem, A., Belkhir, Y., Bali, N., & Jarraya, M. (2018) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12312 · Cited by 40
Supasorn, S., Suits, J. P., Jones, L. L., & Vibuljan, S. (2008) · Chemistry Education Research and Practice · doi:10.1039/b806234j · Cited by 34
The Importance of Diagrams, Graphics and Other Visual Representations in STEM Teaching
Gates, P. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-5448-8_9 · Cited by 37
Animations and static pictures: The influence of prompting and time of testing
Kühl, T., Navratil, S. D., & Münzer, S. (2018) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2018.07.006 · Cited by 33
From feeling forces to understanding forces: The impact of bodily engagement on learning in science
Zohar, A. R., & Levy, S. T. (2021) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21698 · Cited by 36
Tversky, B. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7485-2_1 · Cited by 37
Multimedia Learning and the Development of Mental Models
Hegarty, M. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.033 · Cited by 30
Self-citationLearning about locomotion patterns: Effective use of multiple pictures and motion-indicating arrows
Imhof, B., Scheiter, K., Edelmann, J., & Gerjets, P. H. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.01.017 · Cited by 31
Learning the Concept of Function With Dynamic Visualizations
Rolfes, T., Röth, J., & Schnotz, W. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00693 · Cited by 42
“Narayanan and Hegarty (2002) and Hegarty et al. (2003) failed to find an aptitude–treatment interaction in an experiment using static illustrations and non-interactive animations with 100 students learning how a flushing cistern works.”
BackgroundEnhancing Learning from Different Visualizations by Self-Explanation Prompts
Lin, L., & Atkinson, R. K. (2013) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.49.1.d · Cited by 29
“The only related empirical study was conducted by Hegarty, Kriz, and Cate (2003).”
BackgroundCevahir, H., Özdemir, M., & Baturay, M. H. (2022) · Participatory Educational Research · doi:10.17275/per.22.63.9.3 · Cited by 29
Effect of Presentation Format and Expertise on Attacking-Drill Memorization in Soccer
Khacharem, A., Zoudji, B., & Ripoll, H. (2013) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2012.718312 · Cited by 29
“Some studies have shown a positive effect of dynamic format (Hidrio & Jamet, 2002; Rieber, 1991; Rieber, Tzeng, & Tribble, 2004), whereas others have observed no effect at all (Hegarty et al., 2003; Mayer, DeLeeuw, & Ayres, 2007; Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002) or even a negative effect (Lowe, 1999; Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer,…”
BackgroundInfluentialConsiderations in Design of Transition Behaviors for Dynamic Thematic Maps
Battersby, S. E., & Goldsberry, K. P. (2010) · Cartographic Perspectives · doi:10.14714/cp65.127 · Cited by 29
Reducing transience during animation: a cognitive load perspective
Ng, H. K., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2013) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2013.785050 · Cited by 29
The Expertise Reversal Effect for Sequential Presentation in Dynamic Soccer Visualizations
Khacharem, A., Zoudji, B., Kalyuga, S., & Ripoll, H. (2013) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.35.3.260 · Cited by 28
Text information and spatial abilities in learning with different visualizations formats.
Kühl, T., Stebner, F., Navratil, S. D., Fehringer, B. C. O. F., & Münzer, S. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000226 · Cited by 28
“With static pictures, learners have to mentally animate changes (e.g., Hegarty, 1992; Hegarty et al., 2003), which is considered to be a resource-intensive process.”
BackgroundLanini-Maggi, S., Fabrikant, S. I., Imbert, J.-P., & Hurter, C. (2016) · Cartographica The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization · doi:10.3138/cart.51.1.3176 · Cited by 28
The role of spatial ability when fostering mental animation in multimedia learning: An ATI-study
Park, B., Münzer, S., Seufert, T., & Brünken, R. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.022 · Cited by 27
“In an experiment, Hegarty et al. (2003) showed that the presentation of critical phases of an operating system in the format of static pictures induces performance-enhancing activities.”
BackgroundInfluentialLinn, M. C., Gerard, L. F., Matuk, C. F., & McElhaney, K. W. (2016) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x16680788 · Cited by 36
Improving Middle School Science Learning Using Diagrammatic Reasoning
Cromley, J. G., Weisberg, S. M., Dai, T., Newcombe, N. S., Schunn, C. D., Massey, C. M., & Merlino, F. J. (2016) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21241 · Cited by 30
Can mimicking gestures facilitate learning from instructional animations and static graphics?
Lajevardi, N., Narang, N. S., Marcus, N., & Ayres, P. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.03.010 · Cited by 26
Inside the Black Box: Examining Mediators and Moderators of a Middle School Science Intervention
Desimone, L. M., & Hill, K. L. (2017) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373717697842 · Cited by 26
“The second principle, visualization, targets the difficulties middle school students have analyzing and interpreting visual representations such as charts, diagrams, and graphs (Hegarty et al., 2003).”
BackgroundInfluentialA Meta Analysis on Effective conditions to Offer Animation Based Teaching Style
Kaushal, R. K., & Panda, S. N. (2019) · Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction · doi:10.32890/mjli2019.16.1.6 · Cited by 26
Falvo, D. A., & Suits, J. P. (2009) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.41.1.d · Cited by 28
Morrison, J., Bol, L., Ross, S. M., & Watson, G. S. (2015) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-015-9397-2 · Cited by 24
“Prediction has found to be an effective strategy to improve reading comprehension (Freeman 1982; Hansen 1981), mathematical understanding and reasoning (Kasmer and Kim 2011), and learning from diagrams and animations (Byrne et al. 1999; Hegarty et al. 2003).”
BackgroundStrategic learning from expository animations: Short- and mid-term effects
Ploetzner, R., & Schlag, S. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.013 · Cited by 25
Zheng, X., Ma, Y., Yue, T., & Yang, X. (2023) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-023-10188-2 · Cited by 26
“Previous researches confirmed that prediction prompts and reflection prompts positively affected students’ cognitive processing, respectively (Hegarty et al., 2003; Moreno & Mayer, 2010).”
ResultKorat, O., Levin, I., Ben‐Shabt, A., Shneor, D., & Bokovza, L. (2014) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.78 · Cited by 24
Constructing Aligned Assessments Using Automated Test Construction
Porter, A. C., Polikoff, M. S., Barghaus, K. M., & Yang, R. (2013) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x13503038 · Cited by 23
The Effects of Attention Cueing on English Reading on Mobile Phones
Yang, H.-Y. (2018) · Frontiers of Education in China · doi:10.1007/s11516-018-0016-y · Cited by 21
Impacts of students' experimentation using a dynamic visualization on their understanding of motion
McElhaney, K. W., & Linn, M. C. (2008) · International Conference of Learning Sciences · Cited by 21
Effects of spatial ability and richness of motion cue on learning in mechanically complex domain
Lee, D. Y., & Shin, D. D. (2011) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.005 · Cited by 21
Students from non‐dominant linguistic backgrounds making sense of cosmology visualizations
Bracey, Z. B. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21337 · Cited by 22
Illustrating how mechanical assemblies work
Mitra, N. J., Yang, Y., Dong-ming Yan, A., Li, W., & Agrawala, M. (2013) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/2398356.2398379 · Cited by 22
Münzer, S. (2012) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2012.03.002 · Cited by 21
Using diagrams versus text for spaced restudy: Effects on learning in 10th grade biology classes
Bergey, B. W., Cromley, J. G., Kirchgessner, M. L., & Newcombe, N. S. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12062 · Cited by 23
“Diagram decoding tips were included for the DBR condition based on prior literature that indicated that diagrams are often misunderstood (Canham & Hegarty, 2010; Hegarty et al., 2003) and comprehension of science diagrams can be improved by providing high school students with tips about the conventions of diagrams (Cr…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialIllustrating how mechanical assemblies work
Mitra, N. J., Yang, Y., Dong-ming Yan, A., Li, W., & Agrawala, M. (2010) · ACM SIGGRAPH Conference (SIGGRAPH) · doi:10.1145/1833349.1778795 · Cited by 20
Beege, M., Wirzberger, M., Nebel, S., Schneider, S., Schmidt, N., & Rey, G. D. (2019) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2019.00086 · Cited by 21
Human Behavior in Military Contexts
Gratch, J. S., Blascovich, J. J., Chemers, M. M., Hunt, E. B., Ilgen, D. R., Larsen, R. L., Mayer, R. E., O'Neil, J. H., McLaughlin, A. J., Patel, V. L., et al. (2008) · Cited by 20
Supporting Parent-Child Collaborative Learning through Haptic Feedback Displays
Beheshti, E., Borgos-Rodriguez, K., & Piper, A. M. (2019) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/3311927.3323137 · Cited by 19
“Table 1: Description of the tasks in the TCircuit application of intuitions about how a system works [26, 60].”
BackgroundMou, T.-Y. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Research Open · doi:10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100246 · Cited by 39
Virk, S., Clark, D. B., & Sengupta, P. (2015) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2015.1128331 · Cited by 20
Rekik, G., Khacharem, A., Belkhir, Y., Bali, N., & Jarraya, M. (2018) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2018.12.001 · Cited by 18
Tunuguntla, R., Rodríguez, O., Ruiz, J. G., Qadri, S. S., Mintzer, M. J., van Zuilen, M. H., & Roos, B. A. (2008) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/01421590802263508 · Cited by 19
“Animations can cause increased cognitive load, especially in less-experienced learners, and may conflict with learners’ mental representations (Hegarty et al. 2003).”
BackgroundThe Effects of Attention Cueing on Visualizers' Multimedia Learning
Yang, H.-Y. (2016) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 18
Hartman, H., & Johnson, P. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.06.014 · Cited by 18
THE EFFECT OF VISUALIZATION TYPE AND STUDENT SPATIAL ABILITIES ON LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT
Sudatha, I. G. W., Degeng, I. N. S., & Kamdi, W. (2018) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/18.17.551 · Cited by 21
“One of the reasons why dynamic visualization is frequently used in instruction is because people think that it will make it easier for the students to understand the dynamics of a process than through imagining or concluding the motion from a static visualization (Hegarty et al., 2003).”
BackgroundResultPatahuddin, S. M., Rokhmah, S., & Ramful, A. (2020) · Mathematics Education Research Journal · doi:10.1007/s13394-020-00321-2 · Cited by 18
An Empirical Study on the Effects of Temporal Trends in Spatial Patterns on Animated Choropleth Maps
Cybulski, P. (2022) · ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information · doi:10.3390/ijgi11050273 · Cited by 17
Research trends on learning computer programming with program animation: A systematic mapping study
Yusuf, A., & Noor, N. M. (2023) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22659 · Cited by 21
Violante, M. G., & Vezzetti, E. (2014) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.21610 · Cited by 17
“The second gap regards the investigation on spatial ability and type of visualization (in previous studies, often no interaction of spatial ability and type of visualization were found [35,36]).”
BackgroundA critical review of obstetric and gynecological physical examination videos available on YouTube
Abdulghani, H. M., Haque, S., Ahmad, T., Irshad, M., Sattar, K., Al‐Harbi, M. M., & Khamis, N. (2019) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000016459 · Cited by 17
“Therefore, learners are capable of organizing and integrating the information with benefits from these visual materials more efficaciously.([2,3]) Moreover, the dynamic visualizations are considered informative learning tools because of their ability to represent the contents in a very simple manner that are difficult…”
BackgroundYang, H.-Y. (2020) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2020.1764419 · Cited by 17
“The effectiveness of visuospatial cues depends on the characteristics of learners (Hegarty et al., 2003; Kriz & Hegarty, 2007), learning strategies (Lowe & Boucheix, 2011), testing purposes, and subject matter (Schneider et al., 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialRekik, G., Belkhir, Y., Jarraya, M., Bouzid, M. A., Chen, Y., & Kuo, C. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18010256 · Cited by 20
“Thirdly, they can show the micro-steps of the dynamic phenomenon, while offering a concrete and global view [9] and avoiding the process of mental inference [10].”
BackgroundConsidering Cognitive Load Theory Within E-Learning Environments
Alasraj, A., Freeman, M. B., & Chandler, P. (2011) · Research Online (University of Wollongong) · Cited by 16
Unifying the Ability-as-Compensator and Ability-as-Enhancer Hypotheses
Kühl, T., Fehringer, B. C. O. F., & Münzer, S. (2022) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09650-5 · Cited by 16
Khacharem, A., Zoudji, B., Kalyuga, S., & Ripoll, H. (2012) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2012.735342 · Cited by 17
“, without engaging in relevant cognitive activities) rather than active learning (Hegarty et al., 2003) and therefore mislead learners into the illusion of understanding (Bétrancourt, 2005).”
BackgroundResultMünzer, S. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.12.007 · Cited by 16
Sea of Genes: A Reflection on Visualising Metagenomic Data for Museums
Dasu, K., Ma, K., Ma, J., & Frazier, J. R. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2020.3030412 · Cited by 16
“In the first era (1990’s), researchers studied the impact animation has on learning by evaluating it next to static graphics [28, 49, 73].”
BackgroundMusgrove, A., & Bryan, V. C. (2014) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6046-5.ch079 · Cited by 16
Ploetzner, R., Lowe, R., & Schlag, S. (2013) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v2n2p78 · Cited by 16
Chikha, A. B., Khacharem, A., Trabelsi, K., & Bragazzi, N. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.583968 · Cited by 24
Multiple Levels of Heuristic Reasoning Processes in Scientific Model Construction
Clement, J. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.750713 · Cited by 18
Multimedia Learning with Intelligent Tutoring Systems
Nye, B. D., Graesser, A. C., & Hu, X. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.035 · Cited by 15
Psychological expedient of multimedia in blended learning and metamemory satisfaction
Saini, G., & Baba, M. M. (2023) · The Learning Organization · doi:10.1108/tlo-11-2022-0130 · Cited by 22
Semistatic Animation – Integrating Past, Present and Future in Map Animations
Nossum, A. S. (2012) · The Cartographic Journal · doi:10.1179/1743277411y.0000000014 · Cited by 14
“Added interactivity can in addition, add an unwanted cognitive load to the user (Tversky et al. , 2002; Hegarty et al. , 2003; Griffin et al. , 2006; Fabrikant et al. , 2008).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hegarty, Mary
- ORCID
- Hegarty, Mary
- Venue
- Cognition and Instruction
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-12
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 209-249
- ISSN
- 0737-0008 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-690X
- OpenAlex
- W2156645509
- Semantic Scholar
- a7ef37ad5687fe2d6bd7e7a16d0d6dea8b3f1f8a
- Cited by
- 404
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 29 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 7.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cognition and Instruction (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N00014)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Keywords
- computer animation, mechanical systems, mental models, verbal instructions, spatial visualization, science learning, instructional design
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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