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The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems
Open accessAbstract
The effects of computer animations and mental animation on people's mental models of a mechanical system are examined. In 3 experiments, students learned how a mechanical system works from various instructional treatments including viewing a static diagram of the machine, predicting motion from static diagrams, viewing computer animations, and viewing static and animated diagrams accompanied by verbal commentaries. Although students' understanding of the system was improved by viewing both static and animated diagrams, there was no evidence that animated diagrams led to superior understanding of dynamic processes compared to static diagrams. Comprehension of diagrams was enhanced by asking students questions that required them to predict the behavior of the machine from static diagrams and by providing them with a verbal description of the dynamic processes. This article proposes that predicting motion from static diagrams engages students' mental animation processes, including spatial visualization, and provides them with information about what they do and do not understand about how the machine works. Verbal instruction provides information that is not easily communicated in graphics and directs students' attention to the relevant information in static and animated diagrams. The research suggests that an understanding of students' mental animation abilities is an important component of a theory of learning from external animations.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Across three experiments, students learned about a flushing cistern from static diagrams, phase diagrams, animations, and verbal instruction, but animated diagrams were not superior to static diagrams for understanding dynamic processes. Prediction from static diagrams and verbal instruction improved comprehension, while spatial ability related to some outcomes without interacting with instructional condition.
Key findings
- Animated diagrams showed no advantage over static diagrams. In Experiment 2, static media produced marginally more complete causal descriptions than animated media (M = 14.48 vs. 13.26), F(1, 92) = 3.35, p = .07; in Experiment 3, animation and three phase diagrams did not differ, though both outperformed a single static diagram.
- Predicting system behavior from static phase diagrams improved causal understanding. In Experiment 1, predictors described more correct causal steps than non-predictors (M = 11.02 vs. 9.02), F(1, 92) = 10.97, p = .001; in Experiment 2, predictors also described more steps (M = 14.92 vs. 12.82), F(1, 92) = 10.70, p < .01.
- Verbal instruction substantially improved causal descriptions. Combined groups described: static diagrams only M = 7.09 steps; kinematic diagrams M = 9.51; diagrams plus verbal M = 13.27; diagrams plus verbal plus prediction M = 14.21, F(1, 244) = 73.26, p < .001.
- High-spatial students generally performed better on causal descriptions and troubleshooting in Experiments 1 and 2, but spatial ability did not interact significantly with instructional treatments; functional understanding was unaffected by experimental manipulations (Exp 1 M = 3.12, Exp 2 M = 3.28).
Methods
- Three experiments with University of California, Santa Barbara undergraduates: Experiment 1 (N = 100), Experiment 2 (N = 100), and Experiment 3 (N = 58). Participants learned how a flushing cistern works from combinations of a static labeled diagram, three phase diagrams, computer animation, verbal commentary/text, and prediction questions.
- Comprehension was measured by written or oral descriptions of the causal chain, scored against 19 steps; troubleshooting questions about possible faults; and function questions in Experiments 1 and 2. Spatial ability was measured with the Paper Folding test.
- Main analyses compared instructional conditions, prediction, animation/static media, and spatial ability, using ANOVA and post hoc comparisons.
Limitations
- The paper states that the animations may not have been optimal, that interactive animations allowing pace control might be more effective, that visual attention limits learning from simultaneous motions, and that viewing animation is passive. It also notes low variance in physics training and practical experience and that participants were novices.
- The paper states that one phase-diagram limitation is that participants may not have been able to interpolate between the two stages shown, though all stages were shown in the animation.
- Evident from the text: the prediction effect on troubleshooting was found in Experiment 1 but not replicated in Experiment 2; functional understanding showed no experimental effects; and direct evidence for internal visualization comes from a related eye-tracking study, not the reported experiments.
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Claims the paper makes
63 Own result · 50 Not checked yet · 39 Own interpretation · 12 Own method · 5 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants who predicted how the system worked also included more steps in their descriptions of the causal chain (M = 11.02,SD = 3.55) than those who did not predict: M = 9.02, SD = 4.01; F(1, 92) = 10.97,p = .001.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
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In the paper
“Spatial ability did not significantly affect these measures (F < 1).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Performance in the prediction phase of the experiment (for those in the prediction and combination conditions) indicated that participants could accurately infer some aspects of the behavior of a complex mechanical system from the three phase diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The 19-step causal chain compiled by the authors is a correct and complete description of the flushing cistern's operation.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no significant difference in these gain scores between those who received the static instruction (gain score = 6.32,SD = 3.59) and those who received the animated instruction (gain score = 5.60, SD = 3.17; F < 1).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
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In the paper
“There was no evidence for a negative effect of prediction of system behavior.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spatial ability did not significantly affect performance.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Causal Descriptions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Prediction of system behavior from the three static diagrams was not significantly affected by spatial ability.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As in Experiment 1, none of the experimental conditions affected performance on the function questions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting.
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In the paper
“Again, the effects of spatial ability on this measure did not reach statistical significance.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting Performance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Figure 3, there was a significant difference between the experimental conditions in number of steps described: F(2, 55) = 7.37, MSE = 7.12, p = .002.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Causal Descriptions
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In the paper
“This experiment also showed that viewing three static diagrams showing different phases in the behavior of the system leads to better understanding than viewing a single static diagram.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
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In the paper
“However, spatial ability did not interact significantly with either of the experimental treatments.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“None of the interactions between the variables were significant.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The difference between pretest and posttest performance of the combination group was greater than that of participants in the prediction condition (M = 1.50, SD = 2.36; t[37] = 4.35, p < .001)who received no new information between the prediction phase and the written description.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“There was a marginally significant effect of instructional materials on this variable: F(1, 52) = 2.56, MSE = 4.79, p = .087.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting Performance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Experiment 2 shows no significant difference in comprehension between students who study a static diagram accompanied by text and those who study an animated diagram accompanied by a commentary that is informationally equivalent to the text.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the interactions between the variables were significant.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were no significant interactions between the variables.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with the results of Experiment 1, participants who predicted the system behavior before learning (from either static or animated media) included more steps in their causal descriptions (M = 14.92,SD = 2.77) than those who did not mentally animate: M = 12.82, SD = 3.78; F(1, 92) = 10.70,p < .01.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Performance on the troubleshooting questions mirrored performance on the descriptions of system behavior, indicating that students could also apply their causal understanding of the system to solve novel problems.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“High-spatial learners wrote more complete descriptions of the causal chain (Mean number of steps = 14.61,SD = 2.80) than low-spatial individuals: M = 13.16,SD = 3.90; F(1, 92) = 5.03, p < .05.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants in the combination condition described 4.72 (SD = 2.79) additional steps in the causal chain after viewing the animation compared to before.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, when prompted at the prediction phase, students tended to generate correct, albeit incomplete, descriptions of the behavior of the system”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contrary to the results of Experiment 1, there was also no effect of predicting system behavior on performance of the troubleshooting questions in this experiment”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no effect of static versus animated media on performance of the troubleshooting questions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As in Experiment 1, prediction of the behavior of the system from the three phase diagrams led to accurate but incomplete knowledge of the causal chain.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a marginal effect of spatial ability: M = 7.00, SD = 2.89 for high spatial participants; M = 5.96, SD = 2.89, for low-spatial participants; F(1, 92) = 3.23, MSE = 8.48, p < .08.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants who viewed the animation were more able to diagnose faults in the system (M = 5.72, SD = 2.48) than participants who did not view the animation: M = 4.47, SD = 2.46; F(1, 92) = 28.43,MSE = 5.53, p < .05.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“post hoc analyses (Sheffe comparisons) directly comparing learning outcomes in the animation and prediction conditions did not reveal a significant advantage of the animation over the prediction condition (p > .15for all dependent measures)”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Finally, high-spatial participants were better able to troubleshoot the system (M = 5.88, SD = 2.50) than low-spatial participants: M = 4.50, SD = 2.36, F(1, 92) = 9.19, p < .001.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“High-spatial participants wrote more complete descriptions of the causal chain (number of steps: M = 10.90, SD = 3.78) than low-spatial individuals: M = 9.14, SD = 3.86; F(1, 92) = 8.66, p < .01.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In both Experiments 1 and 2, students who were asked to predict system behavior before receiving instruction had better performance on the outcome measures than those who did not predict this behavior.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the experimental manipulations had significant effects on this variable.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“those who predicted system behavior from static diagrams were better able to diagnose faults in the system (M = 5.74, SD = 2.47) than those who did not predict: M = 4.66, SD = 2.46; F(1, 92) = 6.05, p = .01.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, this experiment again indicated that viewing an animation alone is no better than viewing three static diagrams, showing different phases in the behavior of the system.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, as shown in Figures 3 and 4, the trend was for those who viewed the static diagrams to do better on the comprehension outcomes.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our research indicates that even when animations are designed according to these empirical principles, they are not more effective than static media.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, viewing a single static diagram of a mechanical system does not seem to induce most people to infer system behavior.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The answer to this question is also clearly yes.”
- Also stated in: § GENERAL DISCUSSION · plain
“In both Experiments 1 and 2, those who were asked questions that induced them to predict the behavior of the device from three phase diagrams before receiving instruction had better understanding of the device than those who were not asked these prediction questions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
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- Also stated in: § GENERAL DISCUSSION · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with this view, Table 2 indicates that the text was most effective in enhancing understanding of the flushing mechanism, which depends on an appreciation of the forces underlying the operation of a siphon.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The flushing mechanism depends on an appreciation of the forces underlying the operation of a siphon.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, Experiment 3 showed that viewing three static diagrams, even without answering questions about the behavior of the system diagrams, seems to be sufficient for students to infer some aspects of system behavior.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, students differed in their understanding of how the structure and behavior of the machine bring about these functions (i.e., the mechanisms involved).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experiment 2 showed no difference in comprehension between people who study a static diagram accompanied by a verbal description and those who study an animation accompanied by the same verbal description.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another pattern that is clear from inspection of Figures 3 and 4 is that students in Experiments 1 and 2 who received verbal instruction in addition to static or animated diagrams have better performance on the comprehension measures than students in Experiment 3 who did not receive verbal instruction.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This view is supported by the detailed analyses of student descriptions presented in Table 1, which indicates that students who view a diagram alone do not demonstrate a mechanistic understanding of the flushing cistern.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, Experiment 3 showed that learning from an animation is no better than learning from three static diagrams showing different phases in the operation of the machine.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Consistent with previous research, students with high spatial ability tended to have better comprehension of the systems than those with low spatial ability.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in contrast to previous research, spatial ability did not affect ability to mentally animate the mechanical system in the prediction phases of Experiments 1 and 2.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the effects of spatial ability were greater in Experiments 1 and 2 (in which verbal instruction was given) than in Experiment 3 (which included no verbal instruction), ironically suggesting that spatial ability may be more important in translating a verbal description of the system into a spatial mental model than in comprehension of diagrams alone.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This research is consistent with previous research on mental animation in showing that students tend to describe the behavior of the mechanical system in order of the causal chain of events, even if they do not read an explanatory text (which described this causal chain).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most important, there were no significant inter-actions of spatial ability with any of the experimental conditions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“However, the literature to date has failed to show any advantage of animations over static media for explaining how machines work.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tversky et al. (2002)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast to viewing an animation, previous research has shown that people can be quite successful in inferring how a machine works from a static diagram (Hegarty, 1992;Narayanan, Suwa, & Motoda, 1994, 1995;Schwartz & Black, 1996).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty, 1992
- Not checked yetcites Narayanan et al., 1994, 1995
- Not checked yetcites Schwartz & Black, 1996
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Tversky et al. (2002) reviewed over 20 studies that compared learning from static and animated graphics.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tversky et al. (2002)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The research suggests that an understanding of students' mental animation abilities is an important component of a theory of learning from external animations.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The flushing cistern is a representative complex mechanical system for studying how people learn from animations and static diagrams.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Therefore, people take longer to infer the motions of components that occur later in the causal chain; eye movements indicate that when asked about the motion of a particular component in the causal chain, they look at that component and earlier components in the causal chain, but not later components (Hegarty, 1992;Hegarty & Sims, 1994).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty, 1992
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Sims, 1994
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Therefore, mental animation ability is highly related to spatial ability (Hegarty & Kozhevnikov, 1999;Hegarty & Sims, 1994;Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997) but not verbal ability, and mental animation interferes more with a visual-spatial working memory load than with a verbal working memory load (Sims & Hegarty, 1997).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sims & Hegarty, 1997
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“However, inference of motion can also be based on rule-based reasoning or prior knowledge (Narayanan & Hegarty, 1998).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Narayanan & Hegarty, 1998
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In previous research (Hegarty et al., 1999;Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002) we found no difference in understanding of a flushing cistern between people who learned from an animation accompanied by a commentary and people who learned from a static diagram accompanied by text.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty et al., 1999
- Not checked yetcites Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Similarly, Mayer and Sims (1994) found that high-spatial individuals learned more effectively than low-spatial individuals from animations accompanied by commentaries.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mayer and Sims (1994)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Therefore, people take longer to infer the motions of components that occur later in the causal chain; eye movements indicate that when asked about the motion of a particular component in the causal chain, they look at that component and earlier components in the causal chain, but not later components (Hegarty, 1992;Hegarty & Sims, 1994).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty, 1992
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Sims, 1994
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Isaak and Just (1995) found that high-spatial individuals perceived animations of dynamic events more accurately, and they argued that these individuals had more spatial working memory resources available to mentally integrate different components of motion (i.e., translation and rotation) of objects in the animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Isaak and Just (1995)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Previous research suggests that merely viewing a static diagram of a simple mechanical system such as a pulley system probably does not induce people to construct a dynamic mental model of the behavior of the system (Hegarty & Just, 1993;Heiser & Tversky, 2002).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Just, 1993
- Not checked yetcites Heiser & Tversky, 2002
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, predicting how the system works from the three phase diagrams led to descriptions of the behavior of the system that were accurate but incomplete for students of all levels of spatial ability.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The 19-step causal chain compiled by the authors is a correct and complete description of the flushing cistern's operation.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“First, people tend to mentally animate machines piecemeal in order of the causal sequence of events in the operation of the machine, even if in fact all components move at once when the machine is in operation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty, 1992
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Sims, 1994
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Second, when inferring motion from static diagrams, people tend to engage internal visualization processes, such as mental rotation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Kozhevnikov, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Sims, 1994
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, this group demonstrates good understanding of the refilling mechanism (the mechanism that raises and lowers the float to open and close the inlet valve).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference in improvement between the two groups indicates that students in the combination condition learned from the animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, these participants do not appear to fully understand the flushing mechanism because they do not mention how the disks separate to allow the continued flow of water out of the tank (Steps 6-9) or how the flushing mechanism is stopped when water falls below the siphon bell (Steps 14-16).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experiment 3 indicated that viewing an animation of a mechanical system leads to better comprehension of a machine than viewing a static diagram alone (at least if comprehension is measured by ability to describe the causal chain of events).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“indicating that they could accurately infer some aspects of the behavior from the three static diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The study replicates previous research (Hegarty et al., 1999;Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002;Tversky et al., 2002) in showing no advantage of an animation over a static diagram.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty et al., 1999
- Not checked yetcites Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002
- Not checked yetcites Tversky et al., 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants who received both diagrams and verbal instruction demonstrated functional and mechanistic understanding of both the flushing mechanism and the refilling mechanism.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Research on mental representations of continuous processes suggests that people tend to represent processes as a sequence of key events rather than as analog simulation of continuous motion (Zacks & Tversky, 2001).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zacks & Tversky, 2001
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and that predicting system behavior before learning from static or animated media enhances comprehension of those media.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it also shows that people infer this behavior spontaneously from the three static diagrams with-out being explicitly asked questions about the system behavior (as we did in the prediction phases of Experiments 1 and 2).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“indicating that students could also apply their causal understanding of the system to solve novel problems.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Therefore, the equivalent levels of performance observed in previous experiments (Hegarty et al., 1999;Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002) when people study static and animated displays cannot be attributed to the possibility that students do not learn anything from the animation and commentary.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty et al., 1999
- Not checked yetcites Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such understanding was even more evident in the group who predicted the system behavior before receiving instruction.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The performance of these two groups suggests that verbal instruction can provide information that is not easily communicated in static or animated diagrams (cf.Oestermeier & Hesse, 2000)”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Oestermeier & Hesse, 2000
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results of Experiment 1 also clearly indicated that people can improve their causal understanding of a machine by viewing a computer animation accompanied by a commentary.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, the equivalence of static and animated displays persists even when verbal instruction is not included.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results of Experiment 1 indicated that predicting system behavior from static diagrams enhanced students' understanding of the mechanical device.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“indicating that viewing an animation may not be superior to inferring motion from three phase diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, the verbal text or commentary provides more information.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Force is not a visible property; therefore, it cannot be easily conveyed in a static or animated diagram.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Force is not a visible property.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To understand an animation of a complex machine, people need to attend to and relate changes that occur simultaneously in different regions of space.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“We propose that the reason for the relatively poor comprehension of participants in the control conditions is that a single static diagram does not induce people to infer the behavior of the system (see also Hegarty & Just, 1993;Heiser & Tversky, 2002).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Just, 1993
- Not checked yetcites Heiser & Tversky, 2002
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The first question is whether people can learn about how a mechanical system works from a diagram accompanied by a verbal description.The answer to this question is clearly yes, which is not surprising as it is consistent with the results of several previous studies (e.g., Hegarty & Just, 1993;Mayer, 1997).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Just, 1993
- Not checked yetcites Mayer, 1997 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“However, this functional knowledge did not typically include an understanding of the mechanisms by which the functions are achieved, information that is central to a complete understanding of a machine.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rozenblit & Keil, 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, visual attention might limit what is learned from an animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A somewhat more surprising result of our experiments is that it does not matter whether the diagram is static or animated.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The priority of functional over mechanistic understanding is consistent with previous research on understanding of complex machines.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Miyake, 1986 source
- Not checked yetcites Rozenblit & Keil, 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“One effect of this redundancy is that the text may direct processing of the diagram (cf.Hegarty & Just, 1993) by drawing students' attention to parts of a diagram or animation that are not otherwise salient.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Just, 1993
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Second, there is evidence that merely viewing an animation, or a real motion event, does not necessarily lead to an accurate internal representation of the motions viewed (e.g., Isaak & Just, 1995;Kaiser, Proffitt, Whelan, & Hecht, 1992).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Isaak & Just, 1995
- Not checked yetcites Kaiser, Proffitt, Whelan, & Hecht, 1992
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“That is, they represent a sequence of events (cf.Zacks & Tversky, 2001) rather than continuous motion.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zacks & Tversky, 2001
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In this research, we used animations that followed the prescriptions of this earlier research.For example, the animations were accompanied by simultaneous commentaries (presented in the auditory modality) and used signaling devices to draw students' attention to the relevant parts of the animation as they were described by the commentary.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Faraday & Sutcliffe, 1996, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Mayer, 1997 source
- Not checked yetcites Mayer & Moreno, 1998
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This result is consistent with a growing body of research summarized by Tversky et al. (2002), indicating no advantage of animated over static displays.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tversky et al. (2002)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For example, Miyake (1986) studied how pairs of people worked together to understand how a sewing machine works.She found that they went through cycles of understanding and not understanding as they gained deeper and deeper understanding of the device.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Miyake, 1986 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Second, a verbal description provides information in a verbal code, in addition to the visual code provided by static or animated diagrams (cf.Paivio, 1986).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Paivio, 1986
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Viewing the three phase diagrams in Experiment 3 and in the prediction phases of the other experiments might have been as effective as viewing a continuous animation because these three phases represent the main events in students' mental representations of how the machine functions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The three phase diagrams represent the main events in students' mental representations of how the machine functions.
In the paper
“This is particularly true when the most salient motions in the animation are not those that are most thematically relevant (Lowe, 1999).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lowe, 1999 source
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Phenomena such as the self-generation effect (Slamecka & Graf, 1978) and the self-explanation effect (Chi et al., 1994) suggest that people learn more effectively (and generate ideas or explanations) if they are more active in the learning process.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Slamecka & Graf, 1978
- Not checked yetcites Chi et al., 1994
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, our visual attention is typically focused on only one location at a time, so that in a single viewing of an animation, we are likely to miss some of the important component motions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Our visual attention is typically focused on only one location at a time.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In contrast, when people attempt to understand how a machine works, or answer questions about how it works, they infer the motion of components one by one, in order of a causal chain of events (Baggett & Graesser, 1995;Hegarty, 1992;Hegarty & Sims, 1994;Narayanan et al., 1994Narayanan et al., , 1995)).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Baggett & Graesser, 1995
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty, 1992
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Sims, 1994
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The effects of spatial ability on the outcome measures in Experiments 1 and 2 is also consistent with the theory that mechanical understanding depends on visual-spatial representations and processes (Hegarty & Sims, 1994;Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Sims, 1994
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One difference between this and previous research was that students saw three phase diagrams of critical stages in the operation of the machine, whereas in previous research, only one static diagram was shown.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the effects of spatial ability were greater in Experiments 1 and 2 (in which verbal instruction was given) than in Experiment 3 (which included no verbal instruction), ironically suggesting that spatial ability may be more important in translating a verbal description of the system into a spatial mental model than in comprehension of diagrams alone.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, it provides further evidence that people internally represent the behavior of a mechanical system as a causal chain of events, even when several components move simultaneously rather than in sequence.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“We found that when imagining the motion of components of the device, their eyes tended to move in the direction of motion (Kriz & Hegarty, 2003).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kriz & Hegarty, 2003
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the instructional treatments investigated in this study are equally effective for students of high and low spatial ability.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This evidence is highly suggestive of an internal visualization process.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
- Probably not a substantial claim. 19
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Comprehension of diagrams was enhanced by asking students questions that required them to predict the behavior of the machine from static diagrams and by providing them with a verbal description of the dynamic processes.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although students' understanding of the system was improved by viewing both static and animated diagrams, there was no evidence that animated diagrams led to superior understanding of dynamic processes compared to static diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants rarely described incorrect steps in the causal chain (less than 1 incorrect step), and they almost always reported steps in the correct causal order.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Scoring
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The interaction between the experimental treatments was not significant (F < 1), indicating that the effects of the two manipulations were independent.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In response to the first question, which asked them to explain the causal chain of events in the behavior of the system, they described 7.88 correct steps on average (SD = 2.45) and only 0.31 incorrect steps (SD = 0.57) in the causal chain, and they answered 3.00 of the other four prediction questions correctly (SD = 1.00).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The 19-step causal chain compiled by the authors is a correct and complete description of the flushing cistern's operation.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In response to the first prediction question, participants in the prediction conditions described on average 8.1 correct steps in the causal chain (SD = 2.28), and they answered 2.76 (SD = 1.02) of the other four prediction questions correctly.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Performance in the Prediction Phase of the Experiment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Post hoc (Scheffe) tests indicated that performance of students in the control condition was significantly worse than that of students who saw the three phase diagrams (p = .004)and that of students who saw the animation (p = .01),but the phase-diagrams and animation conditions did not differ.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Causal Descriptions
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Post hoc (Scheffe) tests indicated a marginally significant difference between performance of those who saw the three phase diagrams and those in the control condition (p = .087),but performance on the animation condition was not significantly different from the other conditions”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Troubleshooting Performance
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference between these groups was highly significant, F(1, 244) = 73.26,MSE 10.70, p < .001;post hoc (Scheffe) comparisons indicated that the groups were all significantly different from each other (p < .01).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Figure 3, there was no significant advantage of viewing the animation; in fact, there was a marginally significant trend for those who studied the static media (M = 14.48,SD = 3.35) to write more complete descriptions of the causal chain than those who studied the animated media: M = 13.26,MSE = 10.60,SD = 3.50; F(1, 92) = 3.35, p = .07.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Using this classification, the static diagrams group described, on average, 7.09 (SD = 2.84, N = 43) steps in the causal chain; the kinematics diagrams group described 9.51 steps (SD = 2.62, N = 65); the diagrams plus verbal instruction group described 13.27 steps (SD = 3.93, N = 76); and the diagrams plus verbal plus prediction group described 14.21 steps (SD = 3.27, N = 75).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Comparison of the three-diagrams condition of Experiment 3 with that of the prediction condition of Experiment 1 suggests that asking prediction questions in addition to showing the three phase diagrams may have an additional small effect on comprehension, but this difference did not reach statistical significance in our experiments.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the refilling mechanism, which students understood well even without verbal instruction, involved highly salient movements of the float and float arm, which are relatively large components.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These differences were evident in students' ability to describe the causal chain of events from memory and in their ability to solve troubleshooting problems from memory.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this study, we collected data on students' formal education in physics and informal practical experience with machines and found no significant effects of these variables.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“Physics training and practical experience were not significantly correlated with any of the dependent measures of the experiments.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
In the paper
“Tversky et al. (2002) concluded that there was no evidence for an advantage of animations over static media.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tversky et al. (2002)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This article proposes that predicting motion from static diagrams engages students' mental animation processes, including spatial visualization, and provides them with information about what they do and do not understand about how the machine works.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The flushing cistern is a representative complex mechanical system for studying how people learn from animations and static diagrams.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Verbal instruction provides information that is not easily communicated in graphics and directs students' attention to the relevant information in static and animated diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Isaak and Just (1995) found that high-spatial individuals perceived animations of dynamic events more accurately, and they argued that these individuals had more spatial working memory resources available to mentally integrate different components of motion (i.e., translation and rotation) of objects in the animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Isaak and Just (1995)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The animation was designed to conform to the prescriptions of previous research on effective animations (Faraday & Sutcliffe, 1996, 1997;Mayer & Moreno, 1998;Mayer & Sims, 1994;Mousavi et al., 1995).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > EXPERIMENT 1
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Faraday & Sutcliffe, 1996, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Mayer & Moreno, 1998
- Not checked yetcites Mayer & Sims, 1994
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Rozenblit and Keil (2002) found that people have false confidence with respect to understanding of causal systems.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rozenblit and Keil (2002)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were no significant differences between the groups in spatial ability, physics background, or practical experience (F < 1 in all cases).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Method Participants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Therefore, mental animation ability is highly related to spatial ability (Hegarty & Kozhevnikov, 1999;Hegarty & Sims, 1994;Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997) but not verbal ability, and mental animation interferes more with a visual-spatial working memory load than with a verbal working memory load (Sims & Hegarty, 1997).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Kozhevnikov, 1999
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Sims, 1994
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Steinhoff, 1997
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two raters independently scored the responses of 20 participants and agreed on the scoring of 83% of the propositions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Scoring
plainn = 20- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Finally, students spontaneously describe the behavior of mechanical systems when they view static diagrams that are annotated with arrows showing the movement of parts of the system (Heiser & Tversky, 2002).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Heiser & Tversky, 2002
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, people may know that every other gear in a gear chain moves in the same direction, so they do not need to use visualization processes to infer this information (Schwartz & Black, 1996).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schwartz & Black, 1996
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, people can be quite successful in infer- ring the behavior of a machine from a static diagram when they are explicitly asked to predict how system components will move (e.g., Hegarty, 1992).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty, 1992
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“People also construct dynamic mental models of machines when they read an accompanying text describing the behavior of a machine (Hegarty & Just, 1993).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > UNDERSTANDING MACHINES FROM COMPUTER ANIMATIONS AND OTHER MEDIA
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hegarty & Just, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The function questions measured participants' ability to infer the purpose of each component in the system, as opposed to its behavior.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > EXPERIMENT 1
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two people independently scored 20 of the descriptions (chosen at random from the different experimental conditions); the correlations between their scores were .93 for number of correct steps, .78 for number of incorrect steps, and .94for number of correct steps in order.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Scoring
plaincorrelationaln = 2- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two raters independently scored the responses of 30 participants on this measure and agreed on the scoring of 91% of responses.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Scoring
plainn = 30- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Twenty-five participants were assigned to each of the four conditions on the basis of performance on the Paper Folding test (Ekstrom, French, Harman, & Derman, 1976) to ensure that the spatial abilities of participants in the four groups was about equal.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Method Participants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ekstrom et al., 1976
plainn = 5- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Describing the behavior of the system is a measure of whether the individual has inferred this behavior from the static diagrams (in the control and prediction conditions) or comprehended the animation and commentary (in the animation condition).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > EXPERIMENT 1
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this experiment, we also controlled the amount of time for which the animations and the texts and diagrams were available, to equate exposure to the two sets of learning materials and to ensure that participants took time to study the materials thoroughly.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > EXPERIMENT 2
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This result indicates that both groups learned from the instruction, and the amount of learning did not depend on the format of instruction (whether the diagram was static or animated).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were no significant differences between the groups in spatial ability, physics education, or practical experience.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plainn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The groups did not differ significantly in spatial ability, physics training, or practical experience (F < 1 in all cases).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Method Participants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, asking students to generate a causal description and answer questions about device behavior while viewing phase diagrams improved comprehension of the device, as measured by the causal chain and troubleshooting questions, and the effects of this manipulation were independent of the effects of viewing an animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Students who received kinematic diagrams (either 3 phases or an animation) demonstrated more mechanistic understanding.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These three diagrams clearly provided more information about the behavior of the system than a single static diagram, although further inference is also necessary to generate a full causal description of the system from the static diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that students who received the static media were able to construct a dynamic mental model of the system on the basis of the verbal description of motion in the text and that viewing an external animation is not essential to students' learning.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, students who predicted how the system worked also saw diagrams of three critical phases in the flushing and refilling of the cistern, whereas students in the other conditions did not study these three diagrams.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, people can understand some aspects of the behavior of a mechanical system from an animation alone, without a verbal commentary, and it can be concluded that participants in Experiments 1 and 2 gained some understanding from the animations and did not learn exclusively from the verbal description of motion.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, it can be concluded that this group gained some understanding of the function of the two subsystems (or drew on their everyday knowledge of how toilets work), but did not gain a mechanistic understanding of these systems.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > DETAILED ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS' MENTAL MODELS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They attributed this partially to confusion between function and mechanism (i.e., people judged themselves as understanding a machine if they knew the functions of the different subcomponents).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rozenblit & Keil, 2002
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One possible reason for the misperception of animations and real events is that these events often occur very quickly.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“However, this result was confined to relatively simple mechanical events and did not scale up to more complex situations (Kaiser et al., 1992).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaiser et al., 1992
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This mechanism involved relatively small movements of the siphon disks, which might not be easily noticed in an animation.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When a machine is in motion, many of its components move at once; therefore, a realistic animation of a machine shows these simultaneous motions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similarly, people learn more from information presentations if they first participate in activities that activate their knowledge relevant to the topic of the presentation (Britton & Graesser, 1996;Kintsch et al., 1993;McNamara et al., 1996) or generate the important distinctions relevant to understanding the topic (Schwartz & Bransford, 1998).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Britton & Graesser, 1996
- Not checked yetcites Kintsch et al., 1993
- Not checked yetcites McNamara et al., 1996 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although diagrams can provide information about kinematics (i.e., the geometry of movement in a mechanical system), an animated or static diagram alone can only partially communicate the causal relations between events or the dynamic forces that underlie these causal relations (Oestermeier & Hesse, 2000).”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Oestermeier & Hesse, 2000
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In complex machines, several components move at once.For example, in the case of the flushing cistern, there are two chains of events that overlap in time: one that flushes water out of the cistern and the other that refills the cistern.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, Rozenblit and Keil (2002) found that people overestimated their understanding of how everyday mechanical devices worked.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > GENERAL DISCUSSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rozenblit & Keil, 2002
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Kaiser, Proffitt, and Anderson (1985) found that people can sometimes recognize the correct trajectory of a moving object (such as a ball emerging from a curved tube) in an animation, although they cannot predict the correct trajectory.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Why Are Animations No Better Than Static Diagrams?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaiser, Proffitt, & Anderson, 1985
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Classifying individuals as low or high spatial on the basis of a median split involves converting a ratio scale to a categorical measure and, therefore, losing information.This was done for ease of exposition.We also conducted regression analyses using students' scores on the Paper Folding test, and the conclusions from these analyses did not differ from those reported for any of the experiments”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, high-and low-spatial individuals may not differ in their ability to interpolate motion from different phase diagrams, suggesting that this might be a particularly effective way to communicate the kinematics of a device for students of all ability levels.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Mental Animation
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there was low variance in these measures, and our students were novices.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Individual Differences
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The flushing cistern is a representative complex mechanical system for studying how people learn from animations and static diagrams.
“In this article, we examine the effects of computer animations and mental animation on people's comprehension of a relatively complex mechanical system, the flushing cistern (shown in Figure 1).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 19-step causal chain compiled by the authors is a correct and complete description of the flushing cistern's operation.
“We compiled a list of 19 steps in the causal chain of events that results when the handle of the flushing cistern is pushed down.3 These were either explicitly stated or implied in the commentary that accompanied the animation, and each step was mentioned by at least one fifth of the participants.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The flushing cistern's operation involves two causal chains of events that occur in tandem but are temporarily dependent on each other, making it a challenging comprehension task.
“Understanding this mechanism is a challenging comprehension task because its operation involves two causal chains of events that occur in tandem but are also temporarily dependent on each other.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The number of steps in the causal chain is a valid measure of understanding of the mechanical system.
“we compared their answers to the first prediction question to their written causal descriptions of the system.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The troubleshooting questions measure the ability to apply causal understanding of the system to solve novel problems.
“Performance on the troubleshooting questions mirrored performance on the descriptions of system behavior, indicating that students could also apply their causal understanding of the system to solve novel problems.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Force is not a visible property.
“Force is not a visible property”
The paper relies on this without support.
Language can express all types of information relevant to understanding a mechanical system, including kinematics, causal relations, and dynamic forces.
“In contrast, language can express all of these types of information.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Reading of static diagrams and text is self-paced and interactive.
“In contrast, reading of static diagrams and text is self-paced and interactive in the sense that one can slow down or reread when one encounters a difficult passage.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Our visual attention is typically focused on only one location at a time.
“our visual attention is typically focused on only one location at a time”
The paper relies on this without support.
Viewing an animation is a passive process.
“Finally, viewing an animation is a passive process.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The three phase diagrams represent the main events in students' mental representations of how the machine functions.
“these three phases represent the main events in students' mental representations of how the machine functions”
The paper relies on this without support.
The flushing mechanism depends on an appreciation of the forces underlying the operation of a siphon.
“which depends on an appreciation of the forces underlying the operation of a siphon”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“The beneficial effect on learning of prompting learners to predict the next step in a process has been replicated in several multimedia studies (Hegarty et al. 2003;Mayer et al. 2003;Moreno et al. 2001).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Hegarty et al. 2003
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 92) = 9.19, p < .001”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .003
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(1, 92) = 6.05, p = .01”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Effects of Instructional Treatments on Learning Outcomes
Reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .016
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 92) = 6.05reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .016
“F(1, 92) = 6.05, p = .01”
- Doesn’t add upF(1, 92) = 9.19reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .003
“F(1, 92) = 9.19, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 10.97reported p = .001 · recomputed p = .001
“F(1, 92) = 10.97,p = .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 8.66reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .004
“F(1, 92) = 8.66, p < .01”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 3.35reported p = .07 · recomputed p = .070
“F(1, 92) = 3.35, p = .07”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 10.7reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .002
“F(1, 92) = 10.70,p < .01”
- ConsistentF(1, 92) = 5.03reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .027
“F(1, 92) = 5.03, p < .05”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
“Fifty-eight undergraduate students at the University of California Santa Barbara participated in the study to fulfill an introductory psychology course requirement.Twenty participants were assigned to each of the four conditions.”
§ The Roles of Mental Animations and External Animations in Understanding Mechanical Systems > Discussion
Reported 58 · recomputed 80
Citations
Cites
Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach
Paivio, A. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 5,087
Readings in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think
Card, S. K., Mackinlay, J. D., & Shneiderman, B. (1999) · Cited by 3,935
Why a Diagram is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words
Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6708.1987.tb00863.x · Cited by 3,855
Eliciting Self‐Explanations Improves Understanding
Michelene, T. H., Leeuw, N. D., Chiu, M., & Lavancher, C. (1994) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(94)90016-7 · Cited by 2,492
Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Bétrancourt, M. (2002) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1006/ijhc.2002.1017 · Cited by 1,677
The generation effect: delineation of a phenomenon
Slamecka, N. J., & Graf, P. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.6.592 · Cited by 1,659
Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions?
Mayer, R. E. (1997) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3201_1 · Cited by 1,533
McNamara, D. S., Kintsch, E., Songer, N. B., & Kintsch, W. (1996) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1401_1 · Cited by 1,341
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.90.2.312 · Cited by 1,315 · cited 8×
“The animation was designed to conform to the prescriptions of previous research on effective animations (Faraday & Sutcliffe, 1996, 1997; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Mousavi et al., 1995).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEvent structure in perception and conception.
Zacks, J. M., & Tversky, B. (2001) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.3 · Cited by 1,208
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Hegarty, M. & Kozhevnikov, M. (1999). Spatial abilities, working memory and mechanical reasoning. In J. Gero & B. Tversky (Eds.), Visual and spatial reasoning in design (pp. 221-239). Sydney, Australia: Key Centre of Design and Cognition.
- Hegarty M., 1999, Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 8, 119
- Kriz, S. & Hegarty, M. (2003, August). Staring into space: Evaluating mechanical motion, mental animation and eye movements. Paper presented at the Twelth European Conference on Eye Movements, Dundee, UK.
- Narayanan, N. H., Suwa, M. & Motoda, H. (1995). Diagram-based problem solving: The case of an impossible problem. In Cognitive Science Society (Ed.), Proceedings of the 17th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 206-211). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- 10.1016/s0364-0213(99)80012-3 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Instructional animation versus static pictures: A meta-analysis
Höffler, T. N., & Leutner, D. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.09.013 · Cited by 992
Singer, S. R., & Smith, K. A. (2013) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20030 · Cited by 852
Mayer, R. E., Hegarty, M., Mayer, S., & Campbell, J. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.11.4.256 · Cited by 462
“The computerbased lesson lasted for approximately 78 s and was identical to that used by Hegarty et al. (2003).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationde Koning, B. B., Tabbers, H. K., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Paas, F. (2009) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-009-9098-7 · Cited by 428
“In animations, learners can directly perceive temporal changes, whereas understanding the same content from static representations requires a process of internal animation (Hegarty et al. 2003).”
BackgroundDoes animation enhance learning? A meta-analysis
Berney, S., & Bétrancourt, M. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.06.005 · Cited by 421
“…is to help learners understand the functioning of dynamic systems that change over time, with an analogous and continuous representation of the succession of steps, such as in the flushing system (Hegarty et al., 2003; Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002), or in lightening formation (Mayer & Chandler, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Hegarty, M., Kriz, S., & Cate, C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hegarty, Mary
- ORCID
- Hegarty, Mary
- Venue
- Cognition and Instruction
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-12
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 209-249
- ISSN
- 0737-0008 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-690X
- OpenAlex
- W2156645509
- Semantic Scholar
- a7ef37ad5687fe2d6bd7e7a16d0d6dea8b3f1f8a
- Cited by
- 404
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 29 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 7.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cognition and Instruction (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N00014)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Keywords
- computer animation, mechanical systems, mental models, verbal instructions, spatial visualization, science learning, instructional design
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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