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Generative Learning Processes of the Brain
Abstract
This article presents a functional model of learning from teaching that, in contrast to structural models of schemata and knowledge representation, focuses on the neural and cognitive processes that learners use to generate meaning and understanding from instruction. Wittrock's model of generative learning (Wittrock, 1974a, 1990) consists of four major processes: (a) attention, (b) motivation, (c) knowledge and preconceptions, and (d) generation. Each of these processes involves generative brain functions studied in neural research and generative cognitive functions studied in knowledge-acquisition research. In this model of generative learning, the brain is a model builder. It does not transform input into output. Instead, it actively controls the processes of generating meaning and plans of action that make sense of experience and that respond to perceived realities. Within this framework, teaching becomes the process of leading learners to use their generative processes to construct meanings and plans of action.
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“We conceptualize language as a situated, dialogic, and generative practice [63,68,69].”
From A Systematic Review of Generative AI in K–12: Mapping Goals, Activities, Roles, and Outcomes via the 3P Model (2025) · cites this paper as [63]
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“Generative strategies have been shown to increase confidence and decrease misinformation among students in a high school economics course (Kourilsky and Wittrock 1992).”
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Shifting Attention in Multimedia: Stochastic Roles, Design Principles and the SSF Model
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BackgroundNote Taking and Note Reviewing Enhance Jurors' Recall of Trial Information
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“Generative processing involves actively creating connections between diverse parts of new information (or between the new information and one’s own prior knowledge) so that it is stored in memory in a meaningful and organised way (Wittrock, 1992; Wittrock, Marks, & Doctorow, 1975).”
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“Generative learning approaches are strategies that encourage learners to actively consider the relationships among lesson information elements and between lesson information and personal knowledge (Jonassen, 1988; Jonassen & Wang, 1993; Wittrock, 1992 ).”
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“…capacity (Baddeley, 2012; Bad-deley & Hitch, 1974), and (c) generative learning is essential, because “comprehension and understanding result from the processes of generating relations both among concepts and between experience or prior learning and new information” (Wittrock, 1992, p. 532).”
Canal, M. N., Ardavin, A. F., Díaz-Marcos, L., & AGUADO-TEVAR, O. (2024) · European Public & Social Innovation Review · doi:10.31637/epsir-2024-1685 · Cited by 22
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“As stated by earlier approaches on learning though design (cf. Kafai & Resnick, 1996; Krathwohl, 2002) a high quality of own constructed learning material should also foster conceptual understanding, deep processing, and re-organizing of concepts (see also Rick-ley & Kemp, 2020; Wittrock, 1992).”
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“Denessen, Veenman, Dobbelsteen, and Van Schilt (2008) concur with Wittrock (1992) that such active processing of information leads to modifications of cognitive structures.”
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“Students can achieve easier and retentive learning by introducing tangible outcomes in the course process (Wittrock, 1992).”
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“These changes in motivational patterns can be explained by generative learning theory (Wittrock, 1974, 1992), which holds that students actively control the process of generating and transferring meaning that is situated in a specific experience and is associated with motivational processes such as…”
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Designing Effective Online Instructor Training and Professional Development
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Applying Systems Thinking To Knowledge Management Systems: The Case Of Pratt-Whitney Rocketdyne
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“In generative learning the focus is not on storing and relisting information, but rather on generating relations and creating meanings that increase understanding (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundA comprehensive model of management education for Latin America
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Mentoring for effective primary science teaching
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“Research has demonstrated that use of these generative strategies have the potential to improve learning [14].”
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Afshar, H. S., Ketabi, S., & Tavakoli, M. (2009) · Teaching English Language · doi:10.22132/tel.2009.128610 · Cited by 6
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“Generative learning was originally introduced by Wittrock (1992), consisting of motivation, attention, processing information, generative learning, subsumption, restructuring, and problem-solving.”
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“Wittrock (1992) illustrates the notion of cognitive strategies through the concept of generative learning processes, assuming that people actively and selectively involve in learning processes by constructing meaningful relations between new knowledge from their learning and existing knowledge in…”
A Rich Environment for Active Learning (REAL)
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“Within this framework, teaching becomes the process of leading learners to use their generative processes to construct meanings and plans of action (Wittrock, 1992).”
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“Based on Paivio's dual-coding theory [18], Baddeley's working memory theory [19] and Wittrock's generative learning theory [20], Mayer et al.”
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“…the goal is that teacher-directed and modeled comprehension strategies should lead to the use of generative strategies by students (Fiorella & Mayer, 2015; Simpson & Rush, 2003; Wittrock, 1986, 1990, 1992), which are multidimensional (Alexander, 2012; Kucer, 2014) and theoretically grounded.”
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“The basic idea of generative learning was the process of getting a connection between one concept and another and among experience, previous learning, and new information [17].”
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Web 2.0 Visualization Tools to Stimulate Generative Learning
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“…set of processes and their concomitant results in a psychoeducational sense—one can consider that individuals are not only actively seeking meaning, but creating something above and beyond that with which they are presented in order to construct their interpreted meaning (Wittrock, 1992).”
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Reconceptualizing Cognitive Load Theory
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“Wittrock (1992) described generative learning as a process that involves actively building connections between what we know and understand to new ideas and experiences to make meaning and suggest further action.”
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Zaini, M., Purwowidodo, A., & Nuryanti, N. (2023) · Jurnal Pendidikan Agama Islam · doi:10.14421/jpai.v20i2.7846 · Cited by 3
“This activity is indeed a major feature of the Hybrid-Generative learning model (Osborne & Wittrock, 1983; Khasanah et al., 2018; Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundAn Online Survey Tool as a Learner Response System: Use of Google Forms in University TOEIC Courses
Cho, H. (2018) · Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning · Cited by 3
Bergey, B. W., Cromley, J. G., Kaplan, A., & Bloxton, J. D. (2022) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2021.2021843 · Cited by 3
“KEYWORDS Comprehension monitoring; self-regulated learning; student-generated questions Question generation is central to comprehension and self-regulation during learning (Graesser & Black, 2017; Graesser & Wisher, 2001; Piaget, 1952; Sternberg, 1987; Wittrock, 1992; Zimmerman, 2000).”
BackgroundOrganizational learning culture and innovativeness in Turkish firms
Černe, M., Jaklič, M., Škerlavaj, M., Aydınlık, A. Ü., & Dönmez, D. (2012) · Journal of Management & Organization · doi:10.5172/jmo.2012.888 · Cited by 3
Comment on “The Educational Relevance of Research in Cognitive Neuroscience”
Wittrock, M. C. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022845502805 · Cited by 3
“I have studied it for years to refine my model of Generative Learning, as discussed in "Generative Learning Processes of the Brain" ( Wittrock, 1992 ) and in other sources (Wittrock, 1974, 1990, 1991).”
Self-citationFlorax, M., & Ploetzner, R. (2010) · International Conference of Learning Sciences · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Wittrock, M. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wittrock, Merlin C.
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1992-09-01
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 531-541
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1969049312
- Cited by
- 343
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 25
- FWCI
- 0.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience, Education and Cognitive Function
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational methodologies and cognitive development
- Keywords
- generative learning, learning from teaching, attention, motivation, meaning generation, knowledge acquisition, brain function, cognitive processes, instructional design
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