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Structural Equation Modeling: Basic Concepts and Applications in Personality Assessment Research

Crowley, Susan L., Fan, Xitao·1997·Journal of Personality Assessment

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Abstract

Structural equation modeling (SEM) has become an increasingly used methodological strategy in psychology. Nevertheless, many psychologists continue to be unclear about how to apply this analytic tool in their research. This article reviews SEM from a conceptual perspective, particularly focusing on confirmatory factor analysis. Additionally, the relation between SEM and other analytic techniques (e.g., exploratory factor analysis) are addressed. A confirmatory factor analytic example is presented and reviewed in detail. Finally, limitations of SEM and other considerations are discussed.

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Method
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Cooper, B. (2016) · Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/00036846.2016.1218430 · Cited by 36
“Others have taken a more nuanced perspective and recognize the merit in reporting a number of fit indices (Crowley and Fan 1997; Hooper, Coughlan, and Mullen 2008) because different indices reflect a different aspect of model fit.”
Background
Revisiting Factors Associated With Screen Time Media Use: A Structural Study Among School-Aged Adolescents
Ngantcha, M. E., Janssen, É., Godeau, E., Ehlinger, V., Nézet, O. L., Beck, F., & Spilka, S. (2018) · Journal of Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.1123/jpah.2017-0272 · Cited by 36
A Culturally Nuanced Test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s ‘‘General Theory’’: Dimensionality and Generalizability in Japan and the United States
Kobayashi, E., Vazsonyi, A. T., Chen, P., et al. (2010) · International Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/1057567710368362 · Cited by 36
Psychometric properties of the World Health Organization quality of life assessment – brief in methadone patients: a validation study in northern Taiwan
Fu, T. S.-T., Tuan, Y.-C., Yen, M., Wu, W.-H., Huang, C.-W., Chen, W., Li, C.-S. R., & Lee, T. S. (2013) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/1477-7517-10-37 · Cited by 36
“With a substantial sample size for the confirmatory factor analysis [50], this study demonstrates that the WHOQOL-BREF (TW) is a suitable scale for IDUs even though a few modifications are needed.”
Method
The Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) in Ukraine
Yamkovenko, B., Holton, E. F., & Bates, R. A. (2007) · Journal of European Industrial Training · doi:10.1108/03090590710756819 · Cited by 34
Structural Equation Modeling in Pediatric Psychology: Overview and Review of Applications
Nelson, T. D., Aylward, B. S., & Steele, R. G. (2007) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsm107 · Cited by 36
“Consistent with the movement toward more sophisticated analytic strategies in the broader social science literature, increases in the use of SEM have been noted in both psychological (Crowley & Fan, 1997) and medical research (Bentler & Stein, 1992).”
Background
Marital Quality for Men and Women in Stepfamilies
Schramm, D. G., & Adler‐Baeder, F. M. (2011) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x11428126 · Cited by 34
“An acceptable fit for the CFI is higher than .90 (Crowley & Fan, 1997).”
Background
Conceptualization, Measure Development and Empirical Assessment of Career Oriented Attitudes and Employability of Technology Graduates
Jain, R. K., & Jain, S. (2013) · Vision The Journal of Business Perspective · doi:10.1177/0972262912483528 · Cited by 30
“It is to be noted here that there are no golden rules for assessment of model fit, reporting a variety of indices is necessary (Crowley and Fan, 1997) because different indices reflect a different aspect of model fit.”
Background
Definition and Documentation
Gregg, N., & Scott, S. S. (2000) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/002221940003300104 · Cited by 32
“Such capability has led to a significant interest in SEM’s applications across fields, such as across special education, general education, and counseling (Crowley & Fan, 1997; Fassinger, 1987; Hoyle & Smith, 1994; Willson & Rupley, 1997).”
Background
Influencia del engagement académico en la lealtad de estudiantes de posgrado: un abordaje a través de un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales
Arroyo, J. C., & Orozco, F. C. E. (2016) · Estudios Gerenciales · doi:10.1016/j.estger.2016.07.001 · Cited by 32
Modeling Maher's Attribution Theory of Delusions as a Cusp Catastrophe
Lange, R., & Houran, J. (2000) · Nonlinear Dynamics Psychology and Life Sciences · doi:10.1023/a:1009584528352 · Cited by 31
“Tegano, 1990). Note however that while Maher (1974, 1988) described delusion formation in terms of two types of effects (i.e., an initial increase in fear, followed by a decrease), path analysis allows just one type of relation (i.e., either a negative or a positive correlation; see e.g., Crowley & Fan, 1997 ).”
Background
The Factor Structure of DSM-IV Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Symptoms: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the ADHD-SRS
Collett, B. R., Crowley, S. L., Gimpel, G. A., et al. (2000) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/073428290001800406 · Cited by 31
Self-citation
Development and validation of a WHOQOL-BREF Taiwanese audio player-assisted interview version for the elderly who use a spoken dialect
Chien, C., Wang, J., Yao, G., et al. (2007) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-007-9236-y · Cited by 30
“In addition, this study had a substantial sample size for the CFA operation (more than 200 subjects) according to suggestions from previous studies [25, 26].”
Result
A New Compassion Scale for Children and Its Psychometric Properties
Eşref, N. A. S., & Sak, R. (2020) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-020-01034-0 · Cited by 30
Investigating the Relationships among Stressors, Stress Level, and Mental Symptoms for Infertile Patients: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach
Wang, J., Li, Y.-S., Chen, J.-D., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140581 · Cited by 26
“Regarding stress reactions, previous study suggested that depression and anxiety might display an asymmetric relationship [24], the unidirectional effect from depression to anxiety.”
Background
Facilitation of the SUS-TAS Application with Parsimony, Predictive Validity, and Global Interpretation Examination
Zhang, Y., Cole, S. T., & Chancellor, C. H. (2014) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287514535848 · Cited by 27
“Even with acceptable fit indices, a saturated and complex model is questionable because of its high dependence on estimation of data samples rather than theory, and thus has less theoretical rigor (Crowley and Fan 1997; Mulaik et al. 1989).”
Background
Development and validation of the needs of children questionnaire: An instrument to measure children’s self‐reported needs in hospital
Foster, M., Whitehead, L., & Arabiat, D. H. (2019) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.14099 · Cited by 26
“…on a model fit, yet it is recommended to test and report on a variety of indices to reflect the various aspects of the model that are most insensitive to sample size, model misspecification and parameter estimates (Crowley & Fan, 1997; Statistics Solutions, 2018; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).”
Background
The Influence of Leader Behaviour, Psychological Empowerment, Job Satisfaction, and Organizational Commitment on Turnover Intention
Dhladhla, T. J. (2011) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 25
Enhancing nurses' empowerment: the role of supervisors' empowering management practices
Montani, F., Courcy, F., Giorgi, G., & Boilard, A. (2015) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.12665 · Cited by 25
Relationships among e-learning systems and e-learning outcomes: A path analysis model
Eom, S. B. (2012) · Human Systems Management · doi:10.3233/hsm-2011-0752 · Cited by 28
“Although there are no golden rules that can be agreed upon, Table 1 includes a set of indices that have been frequently reported and suggested to be reported in the literature [44–50].”
A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of a Newly Integrated Multidimensional School Engagement Scale
Hashim, R. A., & Sani, A. M. (2008) · Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction · doi:10.32890/mjli.5.2008.7595 · Cited by 26
Effective material logistics in urban construction sites: a structural equation model
Spillane, J. P., & Oyedele, L. O. (2017) · Construction Innovation · doi:10.1108/ci-11-2015-0063 · Cited by 25
“Numerous authors such as Kline (2005), Hooper, et al. (2008), Crowley and Fan (1997), in addition to Kenny and McCoach (2003) all advocate the importance of, and necessity, to undertake and assess the structural model.”
Background
Disentangling direct and indirect effects of local temperature on abundance of mountain birds and implications for understanding global change impacts
Ceresa, F., Kranebitter, P., Monrós, J. S., et al. (2021) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.12560 · Cited by 24
“Using and reporting such a variety of ﬁ t metrics is recommended in structural equation modelling, because each one re ﬂ ects a different aspect of model ﬁ t ( Crowley & Fan, 1997 ; Hooper, Coughlan & Mullen, 2008 ).”
A Fluency of Feeling
Mortenson, S., Liu, M., Burleson, B. R., & Liu, Y. (2006) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022106288475 · Cited by 27
“Chi-square values predict whether the covariance matrix the model predicts is different than the observed covariance matrix (Crowley & Fan, 1997).”
Background

Authors: Crowley, S. L., & Fan, X.
Affiliations: Utah State University (US)
ORCID: Crowley, Susan L.
Fan, Xitao
Venue: Journal of Personality Assessment
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 1997-06
Volume: 68
Issue: 3
Pages: 508-531
ISSN: 0022-3891 (ISSN-L)
1532-7752
DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa6803_4
OpenAlex: W1971726054
Cited by: 311
References: 4
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 7
FWCI: 10.37
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality Assessment (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Keywords: structural equation modeling, confirmatory factor analysis, exploratory factor analysis, personality assessment
MeSH terms: Humans, Personality Assessment, Psychometrics, Research, Models, Statistical

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Structural Equation Modeling: Basic Concepts and Applications in Personality Assessment Research

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