A Half-Truth Is a Whole Lie: On the Necessity of Investigating Sex Influences on the Brain
Open accessAbstract
Sex influences are proving to be extremely widespread on brain function, including the human brain. Ample evidence now proves that the sex of subjects can influence, ever reverse, findings, hence conclusions, at all levels of brain science, down to the molecular level, often in completely unanticipated ways. Thus the still-prominent assumption that sex influences may be safely ignored by neurobiologists is invalid and must be abandoned. The failure to properly consider the issue fills the literature with conclusions tenuous at best, false at worst. The continuing, widespread resistance to investigating sex influences among brain scientists, a resistance largely rooted in deeply entrenched biases against the topic, is becoming increasingly scientifically indefensible and strongly retards progress in our field.
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Acute stress affects males, females using hormonal contraceptives, and naturally cycling females differently.
“Because acute stress a ff ects males, females using hormonal contraceptives, and naturally cycling females di ff erently (e.g., Cahill, 2012; also dependent on menstrual cycle phase)”
From The effects of acute stress on eyewitness memory: An integrative review for eyewitness researchers (2021) · cites this paper as Cahill, 2012
Cites
Post-traumatic stress disorder is associated with PACAP and the PAC1 receptor
Ressler, K. J., Mercer, K. B., Bradley, B., Jovanovic, T., Mahan, A., Kerley, K., Norrholm, S. D., Kilaru, V., Smith, A. K., Myers, A. J., et al. (2011) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature09856 · Cited by 800 · see citing works
Sex-related differences in amygdala functional connectivity during resting conditions
Kilpatrick, L. A., Zald, D. H., Pardo, J. V., & Cahill, L. F. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.09.065 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
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Sex differences in human fatigability: mechanisms and insight to physiological responses
Hunter, S. K. (2014) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/apha.12234 · Cited by 595 · see citing works
Sex differences in the physiology of eating
Asarian, L., & Geary, N. (2013) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00446.2012 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
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Rocca, W. A., Mielke, M. M., Vemuri, P., & Miller, V. M. (2014) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.05.008 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
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Neurobiological Sex Differences in Developmental Dyslexia
Krafnick, A. J., & Evans, T. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02669 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
The effects of acute stress on eyewitness memory: An integrative review for eyewitness researchers
Marr, C., Sauerland, M., Otgaar, H., Quaedflieg, C. W. E. M., & Hope, L. (2021) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2021.1955935 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Because acute stress affects males, females using hormonal contraceptives, and naturally cycling females differently (e.g., Cahill, 2012; also dependent on menstrual cycle phase), studies should be designed with these factors in mind, even if they are not the primary research question.”
Background
- Authors
- Cahill, L.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cahill, Larry
- Venue
- Endocrinology
- Publisher
- The Endocrine Society
- Published
- 2012-04-04
- Volume
- 153
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 2541-2543
- ISSN
- 0013-7227 (ISSN-L)
- 1945-7170
- PMC
- PMC3359593
- OpenAlex
- W2044060075
- Cited by
- 65
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 7.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- U.S. Public Health Service (R01-57508)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Keywords
- sex differences, sex as a biological variable, gender bias in science
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Female, Humans, Male, Pain, Sex Factors, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Receptors, Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide
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