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Exercise and self-esteem: rationale and model
Abstract
SONSTROEM, R. J. and W. P. MORGAN. Exercise and self-esteem: rationale and model. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 329–337, 1989. Positive emotional and psychological benefits are commonly believed to result from chronic physical exercise. While reviews of research have failed to substantiate this general proposition, they have identified enhanced self-esteem as an empirically supported exercise outcome. Unfortunately, research in this area has tended to be simplistic in self-esteem theory and measurement and has remained incapable of addressing how or why change may occur. This paper summarizes pertinent self-esteem theory and presents an empirically based rationale for self-esteem enhancement through exercise participation. It constructs a model for examining exercise and self-esteem interactions in which components of self-structure are hierarchically organized on a basis of generality. The self-esteem model contains dimensions of competence and self-acceptance, and it is operationally defined.
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According to theory, improvements in specific physical self-perceptions (e.g., perceived sport competence) generalize to improvements in overall physical self-concept and ultimately to enhanced self-esteem.
“As previously described, improvements in specific physical self-perceptions (e.g., perceived sport competence) are hypothesized to generalize to improvements in overall physical self-concept and ultimately to enhanced self-esteem.”
From Physical Activity for Cognitive and Mental Health in Youth: A Systematic Review of Mechanisms (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
According to theory, improvements in self-esteem should be expected in the presence of positive changes in self-perceptions or self-concept.
“According to the theory, improvements in self-esteem should be expected in the presence of positive changes in self-perceptions or self-concept.”
From Physical Activity for Cognitive and Mental Health in Youth: A Systematic Review of Mechanisms (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
These findings are consistent with the predictions of the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model and Shavelson's model of self-concept.
“These findings are consistent with the predictions of the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model 30 and Shavelston's model of self-concept. 31”
From Physical Activity for Cognitive and Mental Health in Youth: A Systematic Review of Mechanisms (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
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Physical Activity for Cognitive and Mental Health in Youth: A Systematic Review of Mechanisms
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“In an attempt to better understand the often documented relationship between exercise and self-esteem, Sonstroem and Morgan ( 8 ) proposed an exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM).”
BackgroundBody image, physical activity, and sport: A scoping review
Sabiston, C. M., Pila, E., Vani, M. F., & Thøgersen‐Ntoumani, C. (2018) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.12.010 · Cited by 408
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“Sonstroem and Morgan (1989) propose that high self-esteem leads to the adoption of physical activity and results from sport participation.”
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Physical Activity, Self-Efficacy, and Self-Esteem: Longitudinal Relationships in Older Adults
McAuley, E., Elavsky, S., Motl, R. W., Konopack, J. F., Hu, L., & Márquez, D. X. (2005) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/60.5.p268 · Cited by 219
“One such model has been developed and expanded by Sonstroem and his colleagues (Sonstroem et al.; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989).”
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McAuley, E., Mihalko, S. L., & Bane, S. M. (1997) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1023/a:1025591214100 · Cited by 187
“For example, Sonstroem and Morgan (1989) have postulated a model that suggests changes in physical self-efficacy brought about by exercise training influence physical self-worth, which, in turn, is directly related to global esteem.”
BackgroundOuyang, Y., Wang, K., Zhang, T., Peng, L., Song, G., & Luo, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03039 · Cited by 185
Magnus, C. M. R., Kowalski, K. C., & McHugh, T.-L. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860903135073 · Cited by 227
“The multidimensionality of self is generally well-supported (Hattie & Fletcher, 2005 ), with the clear identification of the physical domain as important (eg, Fox, 1997 ; Harter, 2003 ; Hattie, 1992 ; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989 ).”
BackgroundKowal, J., & Fortier, M. (2000) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2000.10608895 · Cited by 181
Bustos, J. G. F., Infantes‐Paniagua, Á., Cuevas, R., & Jordán, O. R. C. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01537 · Cited by 223
“(2012, 2014) tried to operationalize the EXSEM model (Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989), which was initially designed to describe the effects of PA on self-esteem in an effort to understand how PA has an impact on BI.”
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Psychological Benefits of an Active Lifestyle: What We Know and What We Need to Know
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Trajectories of global self‐esteem development during adolescence
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Exercise after work, psychological mediators, and affect: A day-level study
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“Drawing on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002 ) and Sonstroem and Morgan's ( 1989 ) model of exercise and self-esteem, we propose that these two facets of physical self-perceptions mediate the relation between exercise activities and affect in the evening.”
MethodBrosnahan, J., Steffen, L., Lytle, L., Patterson, J., & Boostrom, A. (2004) · Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.8.818 · Cited by 164
Effects of a circuit weight training program on the body images of college students
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Exercise and Psychosocial Health
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Depressive Symptoms Among Older Adults: Long-Term Reduction After a Physical Activity Intervention
Motl, R. W., Konopack, J. F., McAuley, E., Elavsky, S., Jerome, G. J., & Márquez, D. X. (2005) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-005-9005-5 · Cited by 144
“, 2000) in the manner hypothesized by the Exercise and Self-esteem Model (Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989; Sonstroem, 1997).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMental health and physical activity interventions: A review of the qualitative literature
Mason, O. J., & Holt, R. (2012) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.3109/09638237.2011.648344 · Cited by 144
“Themost studied theoretical approach to self-esteem (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989) suggests that activity helps enhance perceived physical competencies (e.g. physical endurance), which then lead to greater global self-esteem.”
BackgroundVancampfort, D., Probst, M., Sweers, K., Maurissen, K., Knapen, J., & Hert, M. A. F. D. (2011) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01666.x · Cited by 139
“The EXSEM states that changes in self-efficacy (i.e. the belief in one s capabilities to become or remain physically active) have an influence on changes in physical activity participation.”
BackgroundPhysical activity and body image among men and boys: A meta-analysis
Bassett-Gunter, R., McEwan, D., & Kamarhie, A. (2017) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.06.007 · Cited by 137
Hale, G. E., Colquhoun, L., Lancastle, D., Lewis, N., & Tyson, P. J. (2021) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12485 · Cited by 165
Vella, S. A., Aidman, E., Teychenne, M. J., Smith, J. J., Swann, C., Rosenbaum, S., White, R. L., & Lubans, D. R. (2023) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2023.01.001 · Cited by 169
Running and cocaine both upregulate dynorphin mRNA in medial caudate putamen
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Morin, A. J. S., & Maïano, C. (2011) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.04.003 · Cited by 128
“…of convergent measures all related to body images disturbances whereas the PS, SC and PC subscales are mostly related to physical capacities/abilities and would most likely be more strongly correlated to measures related to sport practice and physical condition (e.g. Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989).”
BackgroundLindwall, M., & Lindgren, E. (2005) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.03.003 · Cited by 93
“In this context, the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989) and subsequently the expanded EXSEM (Sonstroem et al., 1994)—outlining how exercise and exercise interventions may affect PSP, thus leading to enhanced overall global self-esteem through increased physical self-efficacy—have been used as fr…”
BackgroundLi, G. S.-F., Lu, F. J.-H., & Wang, A. H.-H. (2009) · Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness · doi:10.1016/s1728-869x(09)60008-3 · Cited by 101
“Many researchers attribute the following emotional benefits to regular PA (Hellison 2003; Leith 2002; Kerr & Kuk 2001; Baker & Brownell 2000; Biddle 2000; ASCM 1998; Fox 1990; Sonstroem & Morgan 1989 ): enhanced positive and pleasant emotions (Turnbull & Wolfson 2002; Kerr & Kuk 2001; Sonstroem & Morgan 1989; Berger &…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialJones, B. A., Haycraft, E., Bouman, W. P., & Arcelus, J. (2017) · Journal of Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.1123/jpah.2017-0298 · Cited by 104
“in the cisgender population will be explored as potential statistical predictors, such as 118 younger age and male gender,(1,23) low anxiety and depression levels,(3,5) high body 119 satisfaction(28,30) and high self-esteem.(29,31,32) Transphobia has been found to be a predisposing 120 factor to high levels of anxiety…”
BackgroundLife adjustment correlates of physical self-concepts
Sonstroem, R. J., & POTTS, S. A. (1996) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1097/00005768-199605000-00014 · Cited by 94
Self-citationAn empirical phenomenology of young adult women exercisers' body self‐compassion
Berry, K., Kowalski, K. C., Ferguson, L. J., & McHugh, T.-L. (2010) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/19398441.2010.517035 · Cited by 96
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“Morgantown: Fitness Information Technology; 1998. p. 295–310.”
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Asztalos, M., Wijndaele, K., Bourdeaudhuij, I. D., Philippaerts, R. M., Matton, L., Duvigneaud, N., Thomis, M. A., Lefevre, J., & Cardon, G. (2012) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.01.003 · Cited by 100
Test of Structural Relationships Within a Proposed Exercise and Self-Esteem Model
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Self-citationA Study of Exercise Modality and Physical Self-esteem in Breast Cancer Survivors
Musanti, R. M. (2011) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e31822cb5f2 · Cited by 88
“The EXSEM describes the relationship between physical activity, Address for correspondence: Rita Musanti, Ph.D., APN-C, AOCNP, Morristown Memorial Hospital, 100 Madison Ave., Morristown, NJ 07962; E-mail: rita.musanti@atlantichealth.org.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialValidity of the Children and Youth Physical Self-Perception Profile: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Eklund, R. C., Whitehead, J. R., & Welk, G. J. (1997) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.1997.10608004 · Cited by 87
Vocks, S., Hechler, T., Rohrig, S. N., & Legenbauer, T. (2008) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870440801998988 · Cited by 93
“Although the EXSEM (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989; Sonstroem et al., 1994) takes a longer-term perspective, its assumption that physical exercise leads to enhancements of physical self including physical acceptance is also supported by the results of the present study.”
BackgroundMethodResultComparison of high and moderate intensity of strength training on mood and anxiety in older adults
Tsutsumi, T., Don, B. M., Zaichkowsky, L. D., Takenaka, K., Oka, K., & Ohno, T. (1998) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1998.87.3.1003 · Cited by 82
Eather, N., Morgan, P. J., & Lubans, D. R. (2016) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.05.008 · Cited by 93
The antidepressant effects of physical activity: Mediating self-esteem and self-efficacy mechanisms
Ryan, M. P. (2008) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/14768320601185502 · Cited by 94
Physical Activity in Prefrail Older Adults: Confidence and Satisfaction Related to Physical Function
Rejeski, W. J., King, A. C., Katula, J. A., Kritchevsky, S. B., Miller, M. E., Walkup, M. P., Glynn, N. W., Pahor, M., & for the LIFE Investigators (2008) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/63.1.p19 · Cited by 81
“Consistent with work by Sonstroem and Morgan (1989) with self-esteem, one might argue that changes in behavior specific self-efficacy beliefs determine changes in higher order constructs such as satisfaction with physical functioning.”
MethodKowalski, N. P., Crocker, P. R. E., & Kowalski, K. C. (2001) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2001.10608932 · Cited by 82
Relationships between exercise and three components of mental well-being in corporate employees
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“Psychological mechanisms like enhanced self-esteem (Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989; McAuley et al., 1997), distraction from negative thoughts (Fennell and Teasdale, 1984; Morgan, 1985), improved sleep and adaptation to stress (Fox, 1999) are also suggested.”
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“Previous studies have found support for both these perspectives (cf. Sonstroem, 1997), although most attention has been directed towards the skilldevelopment hypothesis, for example, mirrored in the accumulating research on the EXSEM model (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989; Sonstroem et al., 1994).”
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Knobf, M. T., Musanti, R. M., & Dorward, J. (2007) · Seminars in Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.soncn.2007.08.007 · Cited by 70
Noordstar, J. J., van der Net, J. J., Jak, S., Helders, P. J. M., & Jongmans, M. J. (2015) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.06.009 · Cited by 69
“In the EXSEM, a skill-development pathway is hypothesized whereby participation in speci fi c behavior (e.g., physical activity) will in fl uence global self-esteem, through the mediation of more speci fi c self-perceptions (e.g., perceived athletic competence).”
InfluentialPersson, A. I., Naylor, A. S., Jónsdóttir, I. H., Nyberg, F., Eriksson, P. S., & Thorlin, T. (2004) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03268.x · Cited by 63
Coping With Stress: The Effectiveness of Exercise and Other Techniques
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Physical Activity and Academic Performance: The Mediating Effect of Self-Esteem and Depression
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“On the basis of this model, Sonstreom and Alfermann [13,40] found that physical activity is associated with a greater level of self-esteem while using a sample of adults and middle age people.”
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“Sonstroem RJ, Morgan WP. 1989.”
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Li, F., Harmer, P., Chaumeton, N. R., Duncan, T. E., & Duncan, S. C. (2002) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/073346480202100105 · Cited by 61
“First, having no physiological measures at baseline and end of the program preventedusfromfullyevaluating theexerciseandself-esteemmodel (Sonstroem, 1997; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989).”
BackgroundSchmidt, M., Blum, M., Valkanover, S., & Conzelmann, A. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.11.006 · Cited by 60
“One model that addresses this mechanism, adopting a multidimensional perspective, is the exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989).”
BackgroundThe exercise and self-esteem model in adult women: the inclusion of physical acceptance
Levy, S. S., & Ebbeck, V. (2004) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2004.09.003 · Cited by 60
The quality of life of African American women with breast cancer
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“Self-efficacy denotes the belief an individual has in his or her ability to engage in a specific behavior[13].”
BackgroundA Systematic Review of Physical Activity Correlates in Alcohol Use Disorders
Vancampfort, D., Binder, M. D., Stubbs, B., Soundy, A., Herdt, A. D., Detraux, J., & Probst, M. (2014) · Archives of Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2014.08.006 · Cited by 60
“Various studies based on the EXEM model in the general population [29, 30] suggest that positive”
Influentialde Vliet, P. V., Knapen, J., Onghena, P., et al. (2002) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00091-5 · Cited by 54
Tao, K., Liu, W., Xiong, S., Lodewyk, K. R., Zeng, N., Peng, Q., Yan, X., Wang, J., Wu, Y., Lei, M., et al. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16162941 · Cited by 52
“Specifically, self-perceived competence takes an important role in the promotion of PA since physical self-efficacy is an important construct of self-esteem and PA [30].”
BackgroundExercise and diet interventions improve perceptions of self in middle‐aged adults
Sørensen, M., Anderssen, S. A., Hjerman, I., et al. (1997) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.1997.tb00159.x · Cited by 52
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Ahmed, M. D., Ho, W. K. Y., Niekerk, R. L. V., Morris, T., Elayaraja, M., Lee, K., & Randles, E. (2017) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2017.1331602 · Cited by 56
“Thus, high self-esteem includes a positive self-evaluation (McAuley et al., 2005; McAuley & Rudolph, 1995; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989) which makes a person feel good (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989) and result in a perception of well-being (Rosenberg, 1965) about his own qualities (Blascovich & Tomaka,…”
BackgroundHo, P. T. N., Bich, T. H. P., Tong, T., Bramer, W. M., Hofman, A., Lubans, D. R., Vernooij, M. W., & Rodríguez‐Ayllón, M. (2023) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-023-01895-0 · Cited by 67
“This finding aligns with previously proposed mechanisms and models such as Sonstroem and Morgan’s exercise and self-esteem model or Shavelson et al.’s self-concept model [13, 16, 49, 50].”
ResultA genetic perspective on the association between exercise and mental health
de Geus, E. J. C., & de Moor, M. H. M. (2008) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2008.09.005 · Cited by 47
School Sports Participation and Academic Achievement in Middle and High School
Wretman, C. J. (2017) · Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research · doi:10.1086/693117 · Cited by 64
“…overtly specified in Tomporowski and colleagues’ (2011) physical-activity model but long conceptualized to be closely related to self-esteem—if not a core component of it (Fox, 1999; Marsh & Roche, 1996; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989)— body image (BI) is an individual’s valuation of their physical body.”
BackgroundSmocks and Jocks Outside the Box: The Paradigmatic Evolution of Sport and Exercise Psychology
Vealey, R. S. (2006) · Quest · doi:10.1080/00336297.2006.10491876 · Cited by 55
Effects of a 12-Week Resistance Exercise Program on Physical Self-Perceptions in College Students
Moore, J. B., Mitchell, N. G., Bibeau, W. S., & Bartholomew, J. B. (2011) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2011.10599757 · Cited by 47
“These specific beliefs concerning physical tasks are hypothesized to exist as subdomains, underlying physical competence (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialReturn to work following an aquafitness and muscle strengthening program for the low back injured
LeFort, S. M., & Hannah, T. E. (1994) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/0003-9993(94)90014-0 · Cited by 45
Mazereel, V., Vansteelandt, K., Menne‐Lothmann, C., Decoster, J., Derom, C. A., Thiery, E. W., Rutten, B. P. F., Jacobs, N., van Os, J., Wichers, M., et al. (2021) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2021.100413 · Cited by 48
“The positive effect of physical activity on self-esteem is in line with previous evidence (Ekeland et al., 2005; Joseph et al., 2014; Spence et al., 2005) and with Sonstroem & Morgan ’ s exercise and self-esteem model (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989).”
Sales, M., Levinger, P., & Polman, R. C. J. (2017) · European Review of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s11556-017-0185-3 · Cited by 43
“This is an important finding and provides support for the multidimensional and hierarchical Exercise and Self-Esteem Model [55] in explaining the relationship between self-perceptions and PA.”
Wang, J., Xiao, T., Liu, Y., Guo, Z., & Yi, Z. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02785-y · Cited by 48
Vancampfort, D., Probst, M., Adriaens, A., Pieters, G., Binder, M. D., Stubbs, B., Soundy, A., & Vanderlinden, J. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.05.016 · Cited by 41
“One model that links physical self-perceptions to physical activity participation is the exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM) (Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989; Sonstroem et al., 1991).”
BackgroundTajadura‐Jiménez, A., Newbold, J. W., Zhang, L., Rick, P., & Bianchi‐Berthouze, N. (2019) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300888 · Cited by 49
“type of altered footstep sounds could be a powerful tool for supporting PA, changing body perceptions during the moment of exercise while people build self-confidence, and ultimately helping people to form a long-term PA routine [66].”
BackgroundKe, Y., Liu, X., Xu, X., He, B., Wang, J., Zuo, L., Wang, H., & Yang, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1256743 · Cited by 51
Li, B., Jiang, W., Han, S.-S., Ye, Y.-P., Li, Y.-X., Lou, H., & Zhang, J.-Y. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18433-w · Cited by 50
Smith, J. J., Beauchamp, M. R., Faulkner, G., Morgan, P. J., Kennedy, S. G., & Lubans, D. R. (2018) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2018.08.002 · Cited by 44
Rodríguez‐Ayllón, M., Neumann, A., Hofman, A., Voortman, T., Lubans, D. R., Yang‐Huang, J., Jansen, P. W., Raat, H., Vernooij, M. W., & Muetzel, R. L. (2023) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.0294 · Cited by 46
Physical Activity Predicts Changes in Body Image during Obesity Treatment in Women
Carraça, E. V., Markland, D. A., Silva, M. N., Coutinho, S. R., Vieira, P. N., Minderico, C. S., Sardinha, L. B., & Teixeira, P. J. (2012) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e31824d922a · Cited by 39
Hagger, M. S., Hein, V., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2011) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00761.x · Cited by 37
“Self-related constructs have received a great deal of attention in the achievement motivation literature because of their links with competence (e.g., Harter, 1985; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989; Williams & Gill, 1995).”
BackgroundThe Relationship Between Perceived and Actual Physical Fitness: A Meta-Analysis
Germain, J. L., & Hausenblas, H. A. (2006) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200600944066 · Cited by 39
“A potential explanation for the moderate effect between perceived and actual fitness is based on Sonstroem's conceptual framework that posits that physical activity produces physical fitness, which then leads to higher levels of perceived fitness ( Sonstroem, 1978 , 1998 ; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989 ).”
BackgroundEhlers, D. K., Huberty, J. L., & de Vreede, G.-J. (2015) · Telemedicine and e-Health · doi:10.1089/tmj.2013.0360 · Cited by 30
Brunet, J., Wurz, A. J., & Shallwani, S. M. (2018) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.4743 · Cited by 42
Stults‐Kolehmainen, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134049 · Cited by 53
The Effects of Weight-Training Exercise on Aggression Variables in Adult Male Inmates
Wagner, M., McBride, R. E., & Crouse, S. F. (1999) · The Prison Journal · doi:10.1177/0032885599079001005 · Cited by 38
“Sonstroem and Morgan (1989) and Tucker (1982), for example, found that participation in weight-training programs enhanced male inmate self-concept.”
BackgroundAllen, C., Telford, R., Richard, D., & Olive, L. (2019) · Psychology of Sport And Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.101572 · Cited by 39
Social and Behavioral Predictors of Adolescents’ Positive Attitude towards Life and Self
Malinowska-Cieślik, M., Mazur, J., Nałęcz, H., & Małkowska‐Szkutnik, A. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16224404 · Cited by 37
Shaping Self‐Concept: The Elusive Importance Effect
Hardy, L., & Moriarty, T. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00379.x · Cited by 37
Reciprocal effects model of Children’s physical activity, physical self-concept, and enjoyment
Garn, A. C., Moore, E. W. G., Centeio, E. E., Kulik, N. L., Somers, C. L., & McCaughtry, N. (2019) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.101568 · Cited by 40
Metadata
- Authors
- SONSTROEM, R. J., & MORGAN, W. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
- Published
- 1989-06
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 329???337
- ISSN
- 0195-9131 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4294570529
- Cited by
- 383
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 3.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Keywords
- physical activity, self-esteem, self-esteem theory, self-structure, competence, self-acceptance, self-esteem measurement
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