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Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise
Open accessAbstract
In my book Scale and Scope (1990), I focused on the history of the modern industrial firm from the 1880s, when such firms first appeared, through World War II. I did so by comparing the fortunes of more than 600 enterprises—the 200 largest industrial firms at three points in time (World War I, 1929, and World War II) in each of the three major industrial economies (those of the United States, Britain, and Germany). In this paper, I first describe the similarities in the historical beginnings and continuing evolution of these enterprises and then outline my explanation for these similarities. Next, I relate my explanation of these “empirical regularities” to four major economic theories relating to the firm: the neoclassical, the principal-agent, the transaction cost, and the evolutionary. Finally, I suggest the value of the transactions cost and evolutionary theories to historians and economists who are attempting to explain the beginnings and growth of modern industrial enterprises.
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In the paper
“Such challengers did appear, but only a few of them.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“The creation, maintenance and expansion of such capabilities permitted American and German firms in the two decades before World War I to drive British competitors from international markets, and even Britain's home market, in most of the capital-intensive industries of the Second Industrial Revolution.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
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In the paper
“These industrial firms first appeared as modern transportation and communication networks were completed-networks that themselves were built, operated, enlarged and coordinated by large hierarchical firms.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Firms grew by moving backward to control materials and forward to control outlets (vertical integration); but, as will be described shortly, they did so largely in response to the specifics of the short-lived business needs or opportunities.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“Although product pricing remained a significant competitive weapon, these firms competed even more forcefully through functional and strategic efficiency”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“In geographical expansion that utilized the capabilities honed in exploiting the economies of scale, the firm usually concentrated on a single line of products.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“In machinery the British did not even try.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
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In the paper
“AEG sold more products in Britain than did the largest British firm.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“This is why so many of the new companies met their needs by building almost immediately a national marketing and distribution network staffed by their managers and workers.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Creating the Base for Organizational Learning
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“In the years following World War I, the first movers and a small number of challengers continued to grow by entering markets abroad and those of related industries.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 25
- Probably not a substantial claim. 11
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In the paper
“So too, organizational learning permitted Japanese firms, first, to carry out a massive transfer of technology from the west to Japan; then, as Japan's domestic market grew enough to permit building enterprises large enough to exploit potential economies of scale and scope, to develop organizational capabilities necessary for competitive advantage in international markets.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
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In the paper
“The first firms to make the three-pronged investments in manufacturing, marketing, and management essential to exploit fully the economies of scale and scope quickly dominated their industries.Most continued to do so for decades.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“In this climate of oligopolistic competition, market share and profits changed constantly.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“They made it possible for German enterprises to regain their position in world markets swiftly after a decade of war, defeat and inflation between 1914 and 1924, and to come back again in the 1950s after a far more devastating war.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“A new type of industrial enterprise appeared suddenly in the last two decades of the 19th century.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“Throughout the 20th century, these firms were created and continued to grow in much the same manner, and they continued to cluster in industries with the same characteristics.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Moreover, a new electrolytic process transformed and greatly reduced costs of producing copper, aluminum, and several chemicals.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“An Englishman, William Perkin, invented the first such dyes.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
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In the paper
“The world's largest market for man-made dyes remained, until after World War II, the huge British textile industry.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“By then Singer produced 79,000 machines annually in its Moscow factory with a work force of 2,500 wage earners and 300 salaried employees; while its salesforce of more than 27,000 covering the vast territory from the Sea of Japan to the Baltic.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“After World War I, leaders in these major capital-intensive, oligopolistic industries continued to expand existing foreign beach-heads and to enter new territories.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“The new industry provided new sources of light and power that altered urban living and transportation, and also changed the workplace.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“For example, the new capital-intensive industries had a much greater need to monitor high-level throughput than the older labor-intensive ones.Therefore, firms in the capital-intensive industries internalized distribution, while those in the labor-intensive ones continued to rely on independent distributors”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Organizational Capabilities and the Economics of the Firm
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chandler, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Dyes are made from coal, and Britain had the largest supplies of high quality coal in Europe.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While the British continued to rely on jobbers to distribute the product, the Germans created a worldwide sales force; for every user of dyes in the production of cloth, leather, paper, and other materials had to be taught how to apply the new products.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“The first major products of this industry were synthetic dyes, and here British entrepreneurs were the pioneers.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Nothing comparable occurred in Britain, even though Sir William Mather, senior partner of Mather & Platt, one of the largest British textile machinery manufacturers, had obtained the Edison patents at the same time as had Emil Rathenau at AEG.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“During the war, their subsidiaries in Allied nations were expropriated and usually turned over to their competitors in those countries.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“The chemical industry was the most technologically advanced of the new industries, and provided the widest range of new industrial and consumer products including man-made dyes, medicines, fertilizers, textiles, film, and other materials.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In sewing machines the Singer Sewing Machine and in agricultural equipment McCormick Harvesting Machine (it became the core of International Harvester, a 1902 merger) were the world leaders.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Its subsidiaries in Britain and France were the largest producers in those nations.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“It held 25 percent of the stock of Germany's AEG and had comparable investments in leading electrical manufacturers in Mexico, South Africa, and Japan.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If these companyspecific and industry-specific capabilities continued to be enhanced by constant learning about products, processes, customers, suppliers, and other relationships between workers and managers within the firm, enterprises in capitalintensive industries were usually able to remain competitive and profitable.If not, they normally lost market share in domestic and international markets”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such learned skills and knowledge were company-specific and industry-specific.They were not, of course, patentable.They were difficult to transfer from one industry to another, or even from one company to another, precisely because they had been learned within a very specific organizational context.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In metals the British pioneered, but the Germans and Americans made the necessary investments that quickly drove the British from international markets.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If so, then the swift and dramatic success of the German and American integrated companies over their less-integrated British rivals in the last decades before World War I demonstrates how the creation of organizational capabilities through the initial investment in production and distribution permitted first-movers in the new and the transformed industries of the Second Industrial Revolution”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The ability to gain and maintain market share and profits tests the efficiency of a capitalist enterprise, particularly in foreign markets.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, transactions cost analysis is of great value in analyzing why volume producers rarely entered retailing, and why mass marketers rarely entered manufacturing.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Creating the Base for Organizational Learning
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The answer requires a consideration of how the enterprises evolve their organizational capabilities and how their long-term competitive strength and weakness reflect these learned capabilities as well as those of their competitors from abroad and related industries.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The historical cases reviewed are representative enough to support general conclusions about the role of organizational capabilities in competitive success and industry creation.
- Rests on an assumption: Differences in organizational capabilities and investments, rather than other unexamined factors, explain the observed competitive successes and failures of firms and national industries.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This brief review of the beginning and growth of the modern industrial enterprise suggests how the evolutionary theory of the firm, which emphasizes continuous learning that makes a firm's assets dynamic, provides an understanding of why in the past new firms began through the process of integrating production and distribution and why and how they grew by expanding into new markets.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The historical cases reviewed are representative enough to support general conclusions about the role of organizational capabilities in competitive success and industry creation.
- Rests on an assumption: Differences in organizational capabilities and investments, rather than other unexamined factors, explain the observed competitive successes and failures of firms and national industries.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two world wars and the intervening Great Depression weakened the competitive strength of the U.S. firms' most powerful rivals, particularly the Germans.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
The ability to gain and maintain market share and profits tests the efficiency of a capitalist enterprise, particularly in foreign markets.
“The ability to gain and maintain market share and profits tests the efficiency of a capitalist enterprise, particularly in foreign markets where different laws, customs, working habits, and availability of supplies tend to favor domestic producers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The historical cases reviewed are representative enough to support general conclusions about the role of organizational capabilities in competitive success and industry creation.
“This brief review of the beginning and growth of the modern industrial enterprise suggests how the evolutionary theory of the firm, which emphasizes continuous learning that makes a firm's assets dynamic, provides an understanding of why in the past new firms began through the process of integrating production and distribution and why and how they grew by expanding into new markets.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Differences in organizational capabilities and investments, rather than other unexamined factors, explain the observed competitive successes and failures of firms and national industries.
“The point of recounting this bit of history is to document that, unless investments were made essential to utilize the cost advantages of scale and scope, the enterprises and the industries and national economies in which they operated lost out in international markets to foreign enterprises that made them.”
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Winter S., 1988, Journal of Law, Economics and Organization, 4, 163
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Evolutionary Theorizing in Economics
Nelson, R. R., & Winter, S. G. (2002) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/0895330027247 · Cited by 1,202
Toward a Comparative Institutional Analysis
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Microfoundations of Routines and Capabilities: Individuals, Processes, and Structure
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“Scholars also might suggest that the roots extend to Barnard, (1938(68)), Chandler (1992), Leonard-Barton (1995), March and Simon (1958), Weick, (1969(79)).”
Christensen, C. M., & Rosenbloom, R. S. (1995) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/0048-7333(93)00764-k · Cited by 1,053
Embedded ties and the acquisition of competitive capabilities
McEvily, B., & Marcus, A. A. (2005) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.484 · Cited by 833
“Similarly, Chandler (1992) argues that the knowledge and skills underlying capabilities are ‘developed by learning through trial and error, feedback and evaluation’ as managers solve problems such as launching new products and scaling up production processes.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Chandler, A. D.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chandler, Alfred D
- Venue
- Journal of Economic Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 1992-08-01
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 79-100
- ISSN
- 0895-3309 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2031847699
- Cited by
- 847
- References
- 10
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 33.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Journal of Economic Perspectives (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Economic Theory and Institutions
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Historical Economic and Social Studies
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Firm Innovation and Growth
- Keywords
- industrial firm, organizational capabilities, history of the firm, transaction cost economics, evolutionary theory of the firm, agency theory, neoclassical theory of the firm, World War I, World War II
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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