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Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise
Open accessAbstract
In my book Scale and Scope (1990), I focused on the history of the modern industrial firm from the 1880s, when such firms first appeared, through World War II. I did so by comparing the fortunes of more than 600 enterprises—the 200 largest industrial firms at three points in time (World War I, 1929, and World War II) in each of the three major industrial economies (those of the United States, Britain, and Germany). In this paper, I first describe the similarities in the historical beginnings and continuing evolution of these enterprises and then outline my explanation for these similarities. Next, I relate my explanation of these “empirical regularities” to four major economic theories relating to the firm: the neoclassical, the principal-agent, the transaction cost, and the evolutionary. Finally, I suggest the value of the transactions cost and evolutionary theories to historians and economists who are attempting to explain the beginnings and growth of modern industrial enterprises.
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“Such challengers did appear, but only a few of them.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“The creation, maintenance and expansion of such capabilities permitted American and German firms in the two decades before World War I to drive British competitors from international markets, and even Britain's home market, in most of the capital-intensive industries of the Second Industrial Revolution.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
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In the paper
“These industrial firms first appeared as modern transportation and communication networks were completed-networks that themselves were built, operated, enlarged and coordinated by large hierarchical firms.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“Firms grew by moving backward to control materials and forward to control outlets (vertical integration); but, as will be described shortly, they did so largely in response to the specifics of the short-lived business needs or opportunities.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“Although product pricing remained a significant competitive weapon, these firms competed even more forcefully through functional and strategic efficiency”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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“In geographical expansion that utilized the capabilities honed in exploiting the economies of scale, the firm usually concentrated on a single line of products.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
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In the paper
“In machinery the British did not even try.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
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In the paper
“AEG sold more products in Britain than did the largest British firm.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
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In the paper
“This is why so many of the new companies met their needs by building almost immediately a national marketing and distribution network staffed by their managers and workers.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Creating the Base for Organizational Learning
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“In the years following World War I, the first movers and a small number of challengers continued to grow by entering markets abroad and those of related industries.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 25
- Probably not a substantial claim. 11
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In the paper
“So too, organizational learning permitted Japanese firms, first, to carry out a massive transfer of technology from the west to Japan; then, as Japan's domestic market grew enough to permit building enterprises large enough to exploit potential economies of scale and scope, to develop organizational capabilities necessary for competitive advantage in international markets.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
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In the paper
“The first firms to make the three-pronged investments in manufacturing, marketing, and management essential to exploit fully the economies of scale and scope quickly dominated their industries.Most continued to do so for decades.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“In this climate of oligopolistic competition, market share and profits changed constantly.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“They made it possible for German enterprises to regain their position in world markets swiftly after a decade of war, defeat and inflation between 1914 and 1924, and to come back again in the 1950s after a far more devastating war.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
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In the paper
“A new type of industrial enterprise appeared suddenly in the last two decades of the 19th century.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“Throughout the 20th century, these firms were created and continued to grow in much the same manner, and they continued to cluster in industries with the same characteristics.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Regularities Described
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In the paper
“Moreover, a new electrolytic process transformed and greatly reduced costs of producing copper, aluminum, and several chemicals.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
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Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“An Englishman, William Perkin, invented the first such dyes.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
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In the paper
“The world's largest market for man-made dyes remained, until after World War II, the huge British textile industry.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
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In the paper
“By then Singer produced 79,000 machines annually in its Moscow factory with a work force of 2,500 wage earners and 300 salaried employees; while its salesforce of more than 27,000 covering the vast territory from the Sea of Japan to the Baltic.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
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In the paper
“After World War I, leaders in these major capital-intensive, oligopolistic industries continued to expand existing foreign beach-heads and to enter new territories.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“The new industry provided new sources of light and power that altered urban living and transportation, and also changed the workplace.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
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Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“For example, the new capital-intensive industries had a much greater need to monitor high-level throughput than the older labor-intensive ones.Therefore, firms in the capital-intensive industries internalized distribution, while those in the labor-intensive ones continued to rely on independent distributors”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Organizational Capabilities and the Economics of the Firm
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Chandler, 1990
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In the paper
“Dyes are made from coal, and Britain had the largest supplies of high quality coal in Europe.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While the British continued to rely on jobbers to distribute the product, the Germans created a worldwide sales force; for every user of dyes in the production of cloth, leather, paper, and other materials had to be taught how to apply the new products.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“The first major products of this industry were synthetic dyes, and here British entrepreneurs were the pioneers.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Nothing comparable occurred in Britain, even though Sir William Mather, senior partner of Mather & Platt, one of the largest British textile machinery manufacturers, had obtained the Edison patents at the same time as had Emil Rathenau at AEG.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“During the war, their subsidiaries in Allied nations were expropriated and usually turned over to their competitors in those countries.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“The chemical industry was the most technologically advanced of the new industries, and provided the widest range of new industrial and consumer products including man-made dyes, medicines, fertilizers, textiles, film, and other materials.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
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In the paper
“In sewing machines the Singer Sewing Machine and in agricultural equipment McCormick Harvesting Machine (it became the core of International Harvester, a 1902 merger) were the world leaders.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Its subsidiaries in Britain and France were the largest producers in those nations.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“It held 25 percent of the stock of Germany's AEG and had comparable investments in leading electrical manufacturers in Mexico, South Africa, and Japan.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Continued Growth Through Utilization and Expansion of Organizational Learning
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scale and Scope
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“If these companyspecific and industry-specific capabilities continued to be enhanced by constant learning about products, processes, customers, suppliers, and other relationships between workers and managers within the firm, enterprises in capitalintensive industries were usually able to remain competitive and profitable.If not, they normally lost market share in domestic and international markets”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such learned skills and knowledge were company-specific and industry-specific.They were not, of course, patentable.They were difficult to transfer from one industry to another, or even from one company to another, precisely because they had been learned within a very specific organizational context.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Importance of Organizational Capabilities
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In metals the British pioneered, but the Germans and Americans made the necessary investments that quickly drove the British from international markets.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If so, then the swift and dramatic success of the German and American integrated companies over their less-integrated British rivals in the last decades before World War I demonstrates how the creation of organizational capabilities through the initial investment in production and distribution permitted first-movers in the new and the transformed industries of the Second Industrial Revolution”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > The Historical Experience
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The ability to gain and maintain market share and profits tests the efficiency of a capitalist enterprise, particularly in foreign markets.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, transactions cost analysis is of great value in analyzing why volume producers rarely entered retailing, and why mass marketers rarely entered manufacturing.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Creating the Base for Organizational Learning
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The answer requires a consideration of how the enterprises evolve their organizational capabilities and how their long-term competitive strength and weakness reflect these learned capabilities as well as those of their competitors from abroad and related industries.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The historical cases reviewed are representative enough to support general conclusions about the role of organizational capabilities in competitive success and industry creation.
- Rests on an assumption: Differences in organizational capabilities and investments, rather than other unexamined factors, explain the observed competitive successes and failures of firms and national industries.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This brief review of the beginning and growth of the modern industrial enterprise suggests how the evolutionary theory of the firm, which emphasizes continuous learning that makes a firm's assets dynamic, provides an understanding of why in the past new firms began through the process of integrating production and distribution and why and how they grew by expanding into new markets.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The historical cases reviewed are representative enough to support general conclusions about the role of organizational capabilities in competitive success and industry creation.
- Rests on an assumption: Differences in organizational capabilities and investments, rather than other unexamined factors, explain the observed competitive successes and failures of firms and national industries.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two world wars and the intervening Great Depression weakened the competitive strength of the U.S. firms' most powerful rivals, particularly the Germans.”
§ Organizational Capabilities and the Economic History of the Industrial Enterprise > Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
The ability to gain and maintain market share and profits tests the efficiency of a capitalist enterprise, particularly in foreign markets.
“The ability to gain and maintain market share and profits tests the efficiency of a capitalist enterprise, particularly in foreign markets where different laws, customs, working habits, and availability of supplies tend to favor domestic producers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The historical cases reviewed are representative enough to support general conclusions about the role of organizational capabilities in competitive success and industry creation.
“This brief review of the beginning and growth of the modern industrial enterprise suggests how the evolutionary theory of the firm, which emphasizes continuous learning that makes a firm's assets dynamic, provides an understanding of why in the past new firms began through the process of integrating production and distribution and why and how they grew by expanding into new markets.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Differences in organizational capabilities and investments, rather than other unexamined factors, explain the observed competitive successes and failures of firms and national industries.
“The point of recounting this bit of history is to document that, unless investments were made essential to utilize the cost advantages of scale and scope, the enterprises and the industries and national economies in which they operated lost out in international markets to foreign enterprises that made them.”
Citations
Cites
Coase, R. H. (1937) · Economica · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0335.1937.tb00002.x · Cited by 23,972
An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change.
Loasby, B. J., Nelson, R. R., & Winter, S. G. (1983) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/2232409 · Cited by 21,426
Douglass, E. P., & Chandler, A. D. (1978) · The American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/1862020 · Cited by 4,588
Self-citationScale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism
Leblebici, H., & Chandler, A. D., Jr. (1991) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/258922 · Cited by 2,897
Self-citationWhy do firms differ, and how does it matter?
Nelson, R. R. (1991) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.4250121006 · Cited by 1,970
Christensen, C. M., & Rosenbloom, R. S. (1995) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/0048-7333(93)00764-k · Cited by 1,053
Embedded ties and the acquisition of competitive capabilities
McEvily, B., & Marcus, A. A. (2005) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.484 · Cited by 833
Madhok, A. (2002) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.247 · Cited by 611
An Economist's Perspective on the Theory of the Firm
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On Coase, Competence, and the Corporation
(1988) · The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.jleo.a036942 · Cited by 422
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Winter S., 1988, Journal of Law, Economics and Organization, 4, 163
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Evolutionary Theorizing in Economics
Nelson, R. R., & Winter, S. G. (2002) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/0895330027247 · Cited by 1,202
Toward a Comparative Institutional Analysis
Aoki, M. (2002) · Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics JITE · doi:10.1628/0932456022975150 · Cited by 1,195
Microfoundations of Routines and Capabilities: Individuals, Processes, and Structure
Felin, T., Foss, N. J., Heimeriks, K. H., & Madsen, T. L. (2012) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2012.01052.x · Cited by 1,222
“Scholars also might suggest that the roots extend to Barnard, (1938(68)), Chandler (1992), Leonard-Barton (1995), March and Simon (1958), Weick, (1969(79)).”
Christensen, C. M., & Rosenbloom, R. S. (1995) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/0048-7333(93)00764-k · Cited by 1,053
Embedded ties and the acquisition of competitive capabilities
McEvily, B., & Marcus, A. A. (2005) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.484 · Cited by 833
“Similarly, Chandler (1992) argues that the knowledge and skills underlying capabilities are ‘developed by learning through trial and error, feedback and evaluation’ as managers solve problems such as launching new products and scaling up production processes.”
BackgroundThe management of resources and the resource of management
Mahoney, J. T. (1995) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/0148-2963(94)00060-r · Cited by 796
“…perceptions and hence the direction of growth seems productive services, and these, together with the changing to be an underdeveloped idea in the resource-based approach knowledge of management, create unique productive opportuand is addressed in section 2. nities for each firm (Chandler, 1992).”
BackgroundThe vanishing hand: the changing dynamics of industrial capitalism
Langlois, R. N. (2003) · Industrial and Corporate Change · doi:10.1093/icc/12.2.351 · Cited by 738
Technical Change and Industrial Dynamics as Evolutionary Processes
Giovanni Dosi, A., & Nelson, R. R. (2010) · Handbook of the economics of innovation · doi:10.1016/s0169-7218(10)01003-8 · Cited by 609
“(Among economists and economic historians, the list includes many contributors to the SYS synthesis, cited earlier and also Chandler, 1992; Chandler and Galambos, 1970; Mokyr, 1990 and 2002; Metcalfe, 1994, 1998, and 2005b; Ziman, 2000).15 In a broad sense, the process is evolutionary meaning at…”
BackgroundMadhok, A. (2002) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.247 · Cited by 611
“Considering that the bulk of economic activity is carried out by firms (Coase, 1937; Simon, 1991), the market, for the most part, is an implicit and abstract representation of other firms (Demsetz, 1988; Chandler, 1992; Coase, 1937; Simon 1991).”
BackgroundKnowledge-Based Approaches to the Theory of the Firm: Some Critical Comments
Foss, N. J. (1996) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.7.5.470 · Cited by 589
Citizenship, Identity and Social History
Tilly, C. (1995) · International Review of Social History · doi:10.1017/s0020859000113586 · Cited by 561
The Competitiveness of Firms and Regions
Maskell, P., & Malmberg, A. (1999) · European Urban and Regional Studies · doi:10.1177/096977649900600102 · Cited by 574
“Gradually a knowledge-based economy (OECD, 1996) is materializing, where the competitive edge of many firms has shifted from static price competition towards dynamic improvement, favouring those who can create knowledge faster than their competitors (Porter, 1990; Chandler, 1992).”
BackgroundCapabilities and Governance: The Rebirth of Production in the Theory of Economic Organization
Langlois, R. N., & Foss, N. J. (1999) · Kyklos · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1999.tb01442.x · Cited by 576
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“25 After briefly adopting transaction costs as one of his theoretical frameworks, Chandler switched to capabilities (Chandler, 1992).”
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“…capabilities and routines are dispersed across multiple areas (Becker, 2008; Dosi et al., 2000), including accounting (Burns, 2000), manufacturing (Tranfield & Smith, 1998), mechanical design (Chung, Kwon, & Pentland, 2002), business history (Chandler, 1992), and political science (McKeown, 2001).”
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“This knowledge is considered technologically inseparable; it is firm-specific, not transaction-specific and thus helps determine the boundary of the firm (Chandler, 1992).”
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Antecedents and Performance Implications of Channel Integration in Foreign Markets
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STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT WITHIN A RESOURCE‐CAPABILITY VIEW OF THE FIRM*
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Innovation Capability: From Technology Development to Transaction Capability
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The organisation of capabilities
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Technological Innovation and the Theory of the Firm
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Organizations, firms and institutions in the generation of innovation
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“• The first is that the strength of organizational approaches is to allow the recognition of the fact that firms “are the primary instruments in capitalist economies for the production and distribution of currents goods and services and for the planning and allocation for future production and distribution” (Chandler,…”
BackgroundTowards a capability theory of (innovating) firms: implications for management and policy
Teece, D. J. (2016) · Cambridge Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/cje/bew063 · Cited by 302
Autio, E., George, G., & Alexy, O. T. (2011) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2010.00421.x · Cited by 268
“Chandler’s (1992) work on organizational change also refers to “learned routines”; he surmises that change processes are based primarily on organizational responses to events by experimenting with new actions which, if successful, become routinized.”
BackgroundCorporate portal: a tool for knowledge management synchronization
Benbya, H., Passıante, G., & Belbaly, N. A. (2004) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2003.12.012 · Cited by 268
“This perspective builds upon and extends the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm initially promoted by Penrose (1959) and expanded by others (Barney, 1986; Chandler, 1992; Prahalad & Hamel, 1990; Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997).”
BackgroundExplicating the dynamics of project capabilities
Davies, A. C., & Brady, T. (2015) · International Journal of Project Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.04.006 · Cited by 269
“…help firms achieve competitive advantage by modifying or creating new lower-level operational capabilities and routines to address changing environmental conditions (Nelson and Winter, 1982; Chandler, 1992; Teece et al, 1997; Zollo and Winter, 2002; Helfat and Peteraf, 2003; Teece, 2007 & 2010).”
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Learning and Adaptation in Decentralised Business Networks
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Transaction Cost and Resource-Based Explanations of Joint Ventures: A Comparison and Synthesis
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Avoiding Competence Substitution Through Knowledge Sharing
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Social Movements as Historically Specific Clusters of Political Performances
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A new paradigm for economic analysis?
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Strategies for business model innovation: How firms reel in migrating value
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“Although not harmful at the outset, when complexity starts to escalate and grow rapidly, it leads to worsened organizational performance due to coordination costs (Chandler, 1962, 1992; Penrose, 1959).”
BackgroundTechnological paradigms, patterns of learning and development: an introductory roadmap
Cimoli, M., & Giovanni Dosi, A. (1996) · Physica-Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-48870-2_5 · Cited by 201
The (new) nature and essence of the firm
Pitelis, C. N., & Teece, D. J. (2009) · European Management Review · doi:10.1057/emr.2009.1 · Cited by 208
“(p.24) In addition, “The coordinating and resource allocating activities performed by managers shape markets as much as markets shape the business enterprise (Chandler, 1992; Simon, 1993).”
BackgroundThe Future of Purchasing and Supply Management Research: About Relevance and Rigor
van Weele, A. J., & van Raaij, E. M. (2013) · Journal of Supply Chain Management · doi:10.1111/jscm.12042 · Cited by 198
“Backward integration was a strategy followed to secure basic materials needs (Chandler, 1992).”
Technological paradigms, patterns of learning and development: An introductory roadmap
Cimoli, M., & Giovanni Dosi, A. (1995) · Journal of Evolutionary Economics · doi:10.1007/bf01198306 · Cited by 186
“As thoroughly argued by Chandler himself, this organizational dynamics can be interpreted as an evolutionary story of competence accumulation and development of specific organizational routines ( Chandler (1992b) ).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Future Challenges of Business: Rethinking Management Education
Schoemaker, P. J. H. (2008) · California Management Review · doi:10.2307/41166448 · Cited by 160
Governing the firm workers' control in theory and practice
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Capabilities and the Theory of the FirmPreprint
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Industrial geography: location and learning
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The evolution of science-based business: innovating how we innovate
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Modeling the Transition to a New Economy: Lessons from Two Technological Revolutions
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Co-opetition and knowledge transfer
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“Chandler (1992) distinguishes these on the basis of the unit of analysis: "1 am convinced that the unit of analysis must be the firm, rather than the transaction or contractual relations entered into by the firm [p. 99] ....”
BackgroundWitt, U. (2000) · Industrial and Corporate Change · doi:10.1093/icc/9.4.733 · Cited by 152
“5 This is, apparently, not even the general presumption where it would most easily be accepted: in business history, see Chandler (1992). death, i.e. the ‘unfolding’ of a basically fixed construction plan contained in the organism’s genetic program.”
BackgroundPettus, M. L. (2001) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/3069420 · Cited by 151
New business histories! Plurality in business history research methods
Decker, S., Kipping, M., & Wadhwani, R. D. (2015) · Business History · doi:10.1080/00076791.2014.977870 · Cited by 154
Higher-order industrial Capabilities and competitive advantage
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The Essence of the Modern Corporation: Markets, Strategic Decision‐Making and the Theory of the Firm
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Experience and scale and scope economies: trade‐offs and performance in development
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“Our results therefore extend the work of Henderson and Cockburn (1996) and others ( Chandler, 1992; Teece, 1980), who suggest that one of the most important determinants of scope in R&D-intensive industries is the opportunity to take advantage of intra-firm spillovers of knowledge within closely related technological…”
ResultKnowledge exploitation, knowledge exploration, and competency trap
Liu, W. (2006) · Knowledge and Process Management · doi:10.1002/kpm.254 · Cited by 130
The Vanishing Hand: The Changing Dynamics of Industrial CapitalismPreprint
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Understanding Technology Development
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DEVELOPING PROJECT COMPETENCE: EMPIRICAL REGULARITIES IN COMPETITIVE PROJECT OPERATIONS
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“In several ways recent contributions further the ideas of Clark and Fujimoto (1991) about the various rationales for project organising.”
BackgroundRetaining project management competence — Antecedents and consequences
Ekrot, B., Kock, A., & Gemünden, H. G. (2015) · International Journal of Project Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.10.010 · Cited by 122
“Key employees embody important competences and in the last three decades, researchers from strategic management and organizational theory stressed and analyzed the importance of human competencies and organizational capabilities to explain long-term business success (Chandler, 1992; Prahalad and Hamel, 1990; Teece and…”
BackgroundThe role of top management involvement in firms performing projects: A dynamic capabilities approach
Hermano, V., & Martín‐Cruz, N. (2016) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.01.041 · Cited by 100
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“A growing stream of literature in the 1990s, however, pointed out that the M-form was less effective in utilizing the core capabilities of the firm [49,50,12,46].”
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Foss, N. J. (1998) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.56285 · Cited by 94
Innovative Enterprise and Historical Transformation
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The Economics of Specialty Hospitals
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“…to which firms organize and strengthen their “core business” has been shown to be an important determinant of organizational design, function, and performance (Chandler, 1990, 1992; Helfat et al., 2007; Teece, 1982; Teece & Pisano, 1994; Teece, Rumelt, Dosi, & Winter, 1994; Wruck & Jensen, 1994).”
BackgroundA review of contemporary innovation literature: A Schumpeterian perspective
Tzeng, C.-H. (2009) · Innovation · doi:10.5172/impp.11.3.373 · Cited by 88
“…Volume 11, Issue 3, December 2009 TABLE 2: THE CAPABILITY SCHOOL: ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE Building-block ideas Authors cited Nature of innovation Chandler (1992) capability: Hounshell (1996) Institutionalized Jelinek (1979) Mowery, Rosenberg (1998) Nelson & Winter (1982) Teece (2007) Teece,…”
BackgroundKnowledge Acquisition and Learning in Dutch and Belgian SMEs:
Gils, A. E. J. V., & Zwart, P. S. (2004) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2004.09.031 · Cited by 88
“Research focuses on the creation and accumulation of some aggregates of resource named competencies (Prahalad and Hamel, 1990) or capabilities (Chandler, 1992).”
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Global Strategies in the Automobile Industry
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The Process of Vertical Dis-Integration: An Evolutionary Perspective on Outsourcing
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The Transition to a New Economy After the Second Industrial Revolution
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Business incubation models and institutionally void environments
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Forward Integration and Innovation: Transaction Costs and Beyond
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A framework for concentric diversification through sustainable competitive advantage
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Chandler in a Larger Frame: Markets, Transaction Costs, and Organizational Form in History
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Les théories de la firme entre « contrats » et « compétences »
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Alfred Chandler and "capabilities" theories of strategy and management
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COMPETENCE DYNAMICS AND LEARNING PROCESSES IN PROJECT-BASED FIRMS: SHIFTING, ADAPTING AND LEVERAGING
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Capabilities and the Theory of the Firm
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“…that it is '...the specific nature of the firm's facilities nd skills' that most significantly determines '...what will be done in the firm and what by the market' (Chandler, 1992: 86), rather than the incentive costs of internal governance relative to the incentive costs of market governance.”
InfluentialProblems at the Foundation? Comments on Felin and Foss
Winter, S. G. (2011) · Journal of Institutional Economics · doi:10.1017/s1744137410000470 · Cited by 57
“Contemporary enthusiasts of the capabilities approach cannot reasonably be accused of neglecting the role of deliberate, intelligent problemsolving efforts; consider Dosi and Marengo (1994), Winter (2000), Zollo and Winter (2002), Becker and Lazaric (2003), and see also the generous assessment of evolutionary theory p…”
BackgroundIansiti, M., & Levien, R. (2002) · Cited by 57
Metadata
- Authors
- Chandler, A. D.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chandler, Alfred D
- Venue
- Journal of Economic Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 1992-08-01
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 79-100
- ISSN
- 0895-3309 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2031847699
- Cited by
- 847
- References
- 10
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 33.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Journal of Economic Perspectives (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Economic Theory and Institutions
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Historical Economic and Social Studies
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Firm Innovation and Growth
- Keywords
- industrial firm, organizational capabilities, history of the firm, transaction cost economics, evolutionary theory of the firm, agency theory, neoclassical theory of the firm, World War I, World War II
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