The DOI matches its Crossref record; 61 of the 63 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Discrimination in Grading
Abstract
We report the results of an experiment that was designed to test for discrimination in grading in India. We recruited teachers to grade exams. We randomly assigned child “characteristics” (age, gender, and caste) to the cover sheets of the exams to ensure that there is no relationship between these observed characteristics and the exam quality. We find that teachers give exams that are assigned to be lower caste scores that are about 0.03 to 0.08 standard deviations lower than those that are assigned to be high caste. The teachers' behavior appears consistent with statistical discrimination. (JEL I21, J13, O15, O17, Z13)
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Indeed, robust evidence suggests gender, racial, and ethnic biases in how teachers grade exams in a variety of contexts (Burgess & Greaves, 2013; Cornwell, Mustard, & Van Parys, 2013; Hanna & Linden, 2012; Lavy, 2008).”
From Who believes in me? The effect of student–teacher demographic match on teacher expectations (2016) · cites this paper as Hanna & Linden, 2012
Citations
Cites
Filders, R. (1992) · International Journal of Forecasting · doi:10.1016/0169-2070(92)90130-2 · Cited by 16,765
David, F. N., & Tukey, J. W. (1977) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2529486 · Cited by 12,707
U.S. Department of State (2017) · The SHAFR Guide Online · doi:10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim210040063 · Cited by 9,043
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 9,020
(2012) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.102.7.i · Cited by 7,275
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/0002828042002561 · Cited by 4,504
Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968) · The Urban Review · doi:10.1007/bf02322211 · Cited by 3,878
The Economics of Discrimination.
Collard, D. A., & Becker, G. S. (1972) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/2230052 · Cited by 3,642
The Statistical Theory of Racism and Sexism.
Phelps, E. S. (1972) · American Economic Review · Cited by 3,412
Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination
Tajfel, H. (1970) · Scientific American · doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96 · Cited by 2,577
Orchestrating Impartiality: The Impact of “Blind” Auditions on Female Musicians
Goldin, C. D., & Rouse, C. E. (2000) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.90.4.715 · Cited by 1,727
Remedying Education: Evidence from Two Randomized Experiments in India
Banerjee, A. V., Cole, S., Duflo, E., & Linden, L. (2007) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/qjec.122.3.1235 · Cited by 1,398
Self-citationSocial categorization and similarity in intergroup behaviour
Billig, M., & Tajfel, H. (1973) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420030103 · Cited by 1,283
South African Journal of Higher Education
(2014) · African Studies Companion Online · doi:10.1163/1872-9037_afco_asc_645 · Cited by 1,134
Employer Learning and Statistical Discrimination
Altonji, J. G., & Pierret, C. R. (2001) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355301556329 · Cited by 919
Teachers’ perceptions and expectations and the black-white test score gap
Ferguson, R. F. (2003) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/0042085903038004006 · Cited by 886
Will Affirmative Action Policies Eliminate Negative Stereotypes
Coate, S., & Loury, G. C. (1992) · American Economic Review · Cited by 826
Munshi, K. D., & Rosenzweig, M. R. (2006) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.96.4.1225 · Cited by 783
Employer Learning and Statistical Discrimination
Altonji, J. G., & Pierret, C. R. (1997) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w6279 · Cited by 618
Public report on basic education in India
Probe Team (1999) · Cited by 485
Discrimination, Social Identity, and Durable Inequalities
Hoff, K., & Pandey, P. (2006) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282806777212611 · Cited by 484
The Nature and Extent of Discrimination in the Marketplace: Evidence from the Field
List, J. A. (2004) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355304772839524 · Cited by 447
Blank, R. M. (2016) · American Economic Review · Cited by 421
Performance-Based Assessment and Educational Equity
Darling‐Hammond, L. (1994) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.64.1.j57n353226536276 · Cited by 306
Lavy, V. (2008) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2008.02.009 · Cited by 291
Affirmative action in education: Evidence from engineering college admissions in India
Bertrand, M., Hanna, R., & Mullainathan, S. (2009) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.11.003 · Cited by 277
Self-citationCaste discrimination in the Indian urban labour market
Banerjee, B., & Knight, J. B. (1985) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/0304-3878(85)90094-x · Cited by 224
Labor market discrimination in Delhi: Evidence from a field experiment
Banerjee, A., Bertrand, M., Datta, S., & Mullainathan, S. (2008) · Journal of Comparative Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jce.2008.09.002 · Cited by 200
Monitoring Works: Getting Teachers to Come to SchoolPreprint
Duflo, E., & Hanna, R. (2006) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.7910/dvn/lrdxhx · Cited by 191
Self-citationContract Teachers: Experimental Evidence from India
Muralidharan, K., & Sundararaman, V. (2013) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w19440 · Cited by 188
Evaluation of Male and Female Ability: Bias Works Two Ways
Deaux, K., & Taynor, J. (1973) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1973.32.1.261 · Cited by 186
Testing Theories of Discrimination: Evidence from Weakest Link
Levitt, S. D. (2004) · The Journal of Law and Economics · doi:10.1086/425591 · Cited by 174
Do high grading standards affect student performance?
Figlio, D., & Lucas, M. E. (2003) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/s0047-2727(03)00039-2 · Cited by 146
Bias in Reward Allocation in an Intergroup and an Interpersonal Context
Vaughan, G. M., Tajfel, H., & Williams, J. (1981) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3033861 · Cited by 131
Jacobson, M. B., & Effertz, J. (1974) · Organizational Behavior and Human Performance · doi:10.1016/0030-5073(74)90059-2 · Cited by 122
Brennan, R. L., Kim, J., Wenz-Gross, M., & Siperstein, G. N. (2001) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.71.2.v51n6503372t4578 · Cited by 85
Peer Effects and the Impact of Tracking: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in Kenya
Duflo, E., Pascaline Dupas, Y., & Kremer, M. R. (2008) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 84
Discrimination: Experimental Evidence from Psychology and Economics
Anderson, L. R., Fryer, R. G., & Holt, C. A. (2006) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781847200150.00010 · Cited by 77
Linden, L., & MacLeod, M. (2008) · Cited by 69
Self-citationEffects of students' race, physical attractiveness, and dialect on teachers' evaluations
DeMeis, D. K., & Turner, R. R. (1978) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/0361-476x(78)90012-7 · Cited by 64
Mechtenberg, L. (2009) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-937x.2009.00551.x · Cited by 62
Discrimination in Lending: Theory and Evidence
Han, S. (2004) · The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics · doi:10.1023/b:real.0000027199.22889.65 · Cited by 50
BLIND MARKING AND SEX BIAS IN STUDENT ASSESSMENT
Newstead, S. E., & Dennis, I. (1990) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/0260293900150204 · Cited by 42
Gender and Antecedents of Performance in Mathematics Testing
Gallagher, A. M. (1998) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146819810000204 · Cited by 41
What's in a name? Experiments with blind marking in A‐level examinations
Baird, J. (1998) · Educational Research · doi:10.1080/0013188980400207 · Cited by 39
WHITE ADULT BEHAVIOR TOWARD BLACK AND WHITE CHILDREN
Coates, B. (1972) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1972.tb01086.x · Cited by 34
Glewwe, P. W., Ilias, N., & Kremer, M. R. (2008) · Cited by 33
The Effect of Clear Evaluation Criteria on Sex Bias in Judgments of Performance
Lenney, E., Mitchell, L., & Browning, C. (1983) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1983.tb00846.x · Cited by 33
Caste Based Discrimination: Evidence and PolicyPreprint
Siddique, Z. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1278938 · Cited by 30
Contract Teachers: Experimental Evidence from India. NBER Working Paper No. 19440.
Muralidharan, K., & Sundararaman, V. (2013) · National Bureau of Economic Research · Cited by 29
Chandra, V. P. (1997) · International Migration Review · doi:10.1177/019791839703100110 · Cited by 28
Grain inflation: Identifying agent discretion in response to a conditional school nutrition program
Linden, L., & Shastry, G. K. (2011) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2011.11.002 · Cited by 25
Self-citationObjectivity in Grading: The Promise of Bar Codes
Jae, H., & Cowling, J. F. (2008) · College Teaching · doi:10.3200/ctch.57.1.51-55 · Cited by 20
Effect of anonymous test grading on passing rates as related to gender and race
Dorsey, J. K., & Colliver, J. A. (1995) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00001888-199504000-00017 · Cited by 15
Bertrand, M., Hanna, R., & Mullainathan, S. (2008) · National Bureau of Economic Research · Cited by 14
Self-citationRacial halo on evaluative rating: General or differential?
Wen, S.-S. (1979) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/0361-476x(79)90022-5 · Cited by 8
DO HIGH-STATUS GROUPS DISCRIMINATE MORE? DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN SOCIAL IDENTITY AND EQUITY CONCERNS
Klein, O., & Azzi, A. E. (2001) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.2001.29.3.209 · Cited by 8
Anonymous examination marking at University of Cape Town: The quest for an `agonising-free zone'
Shay, S., & Jones, B. (2008) · South African Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.4314/sajhe.v20i4.25682 · Cited by 5
Chandra, V. P. (1997) · International Migration Review · doi:10.2307/2547264 · Cited by 4
Caste Discrimination in School Admissions: Evidence from Test Scores
Holla, A. (2007) · Cited by 3
Anonymous examination marking at University of Cape Town: the quest for an 'agonizing-free zone'
Shay, S., & Jones, A. M. (2006) · Open University of Cape Town (University of Cape Town) · Cited by 2
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- Coate Steven, 1993, American Economic review, 83, 1220
- Jodhka Surinder S, 2007, Economic and Political Weekly, 42, 4125
- Lakshmanasamy T., 1995, Indian Journal of social science, 8, 59
- Madheshwaran S., 2007, Economic and Political Weekly, 42, 4146
- Phelps Edmund S, 1972, American Economic review, 62, 659
- Rao Vijayendra, 1992, University of Chicago Economics Research Center Working Paper, 92
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Who believes in me? The effect of student–teacher demographic match on teacher expectations
Gershenson, S., Holt, S. B., & Papageorge, N. W. (2016) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.03.002 · Cited by 745
Caste and development: Contemporary perspectives on a structure of discrimination and advantage
Mosse, D. (2018) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.06.003 · Cited by 478
Quality of Primary Care in Low-Income Countries: Facts and Economics
Das, J., & Hammer, J. (2014) · Annual Review of Economics · doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-080213-041350 · Cited by 188
Revealing Stereotypes: Evidence from Immigrants in Schools
Alesina, A., Carlana, M., Ferrara, E. L., & Pinotti, P. (2018) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w25333 · Cited by 186
Lavy, V., & Sand, E. (2018) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.09.007 · Cited by 180
Metadata
- Authors
- Hanna, R. N., & Linden, L. L.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Venue
- American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 2012-11-01
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 146-168
- ISSN
- 1945-7731 (ISSN-L)
- 1945-774X
- OpenAlex
- W2072787962
- Cited by
- 161
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 21.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Economic Journal Economic Policy (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Keywords
- statistical discrimination, caste discrimination, test scoring, teacher behavior, gender discrimination, age discrimination, India
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
