The DOI matches its Crossref record; 50 of the 50 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Redlines and Greenspace: The Relationship between Historical Redlining and 2010 Greenspace across the United States
Open accessAbstract
Introduction: Redlining, a racist mortgage appraisal practice of the 1930s, established and exacerbated racial residential segregation boundaries in the United States. Investment risk grades assigned >80y ago through security maps from the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) are associated with current sociodemographics and adverse health outcomes. We assessed whether historical HOLC investment grades are associated with 2010 greenspace, a health-promoting neighborhood resource. Objectives: We compared 2010 normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) across previous HOLC neighborhood grades using propensity score restriction and matching. Methods: Security map shapefiles were downloaded from the Mapping Inequality Project. Neighborhood investment risk grades included A (best, green), B (blue), C (yellow), and D (hazardous, red, i.e., redlined). We used 2010 satellite imagery to calculate the average NDVI for each HOLC neighborhood. Our main outcomes were 2010 annual average NDVI and summer NDVI. We assigned areal-apportioned 1940 census measures to each HOLC neighborhood. We used propensity score restriction, matching, and targeted maximum likelihood estimation to limit model extrapolation, reduce confounding, and estimate the association between HOLC grade and NDVI for the following comparisons: Grades B vs. A, C vs. B, and D vs. C. Results: Across 102 urban areas (4,141 HOLC polygons), annual average ±standard deviation (SD) 2010 NDVI was 0.47 (±0.09), 0.43 (±0.09), 0.39 (±0.09), and 0.36 (±0.10) in Grades A–D, respectively. In analyses adjusted for current ecoregion and census region, 1940s census measures, and 1940s population density, annual average NDVI values in 2010 were estimated at −0.039 (95% CI: −0.045, −0.034), −0.024 (95% CI: −0.030, −0.018), and −0.026 (95% CI: −0.037, −0.015) for Grades B vs. A, C vs. B, and D vs. C, respectively, in the 1930s. Discussion: Estimates adjusted for historical characteristics indicate that neighborhoods assigned worse HOLC grades in the 1930s are associated with reduced present-day greenspace. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP7495
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Austin, P. C. (2011) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2011.568786 · Cited by 12,242
Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments
Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., & Zelson, M. (1991) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80184-7 · Cited by 5,990
Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: evidence and interventions
Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(17)30569-x · Cited by 5,203
MatchIt : Nonparametric Preprocessing for Parametric Causal Inference
Ho, D. E., Imai, K., King, G., & Stuart, E. A. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v042.i08 · Cited by 4,385
The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America
Pattillo, M. (2018) · Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/0094306118792220ll · Cited by 2,247
Overadjustment bias and unnecessary adjustment in epidemiologic studies.
Schisterman, E. F., Cole, S. R., & Platt, R. W. (2009) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0b013e3181a819a1 · Cited by 2,096 · cited 1×
“…include present-day sociodemographic measures in our analyses because HOLC grades reduced home ownership, investment, and degraded wealth-generating opportunities in redlined and yellow-lined communities, thus making present-day demographic variables potential mediators (Schisterman et al. 2009).”
Air Pollution Removal by Urban Trees and Shrubs in the United States
Nowak, D. J., Crane, D. E., & Stevens, J. C. (2006) · Urban Forestry & Urban Greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2006.01.007 · Cited by 2,019
van der Laan, M. J., Polley, E. C., & Hubbard, A. E. (2007) · Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology · doi:10.2202/1544-6115.1309 · Cited by 1,719
The impacts of nature experience on human cognitive function and mental health
Bratman, G. N., Hamilton, J. P., & Daily, G. C. (2012) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06400.x · Cited by 1,275
Ward Thompson, C., Roe, J., Aspinall, P., Mitchell, R., Clow, A., & Miller, D. (2012) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.015 · Cited by 1,132
Cited by
Johnson, N. M., Hoffmann, A. R., Behlen, J. C., Lau, C., Pendleton, D., Harvey, N., Shore, R., Li, Y., Chen, J., Tian, Y., et al. (2021) · Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12199-021-00995-5 · Cited by 339
“This is particularly important when looking through the lens of racial inequity in the USA, as studies show historically redlined neighborhoods are still associated with reduced present-day green space [208].”
BackgroundRising temperatures erode human sleep globally
Minor, K., Bjerre-Nielsen, A., Jonasdottir, S. S., Lehmann, S., & Obradovich, N. (2022) · One Earth · doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2022.04.008 · Cited by 261
Metadata
- Authors
- Nardone, A., Rudolph, K. E., Morello-Frosch, R., & Casey, J. A.
- Venue
- Environmental Health Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 129
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 17006-17006
- ISSN
- 0091-6765 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-9924
- OpenAlex
- W3124595663
- Cited by
- 363
- References
- 50
- FWCI
- 87.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Redlines and Greenspace: The Relationship between Historical Redlining and 2010 Greenspace across the United States. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1289/ehp7495
- The paper
- Nardone, A., Rudolph, K. E., Morello-Frosch, R., & Casey, J. A. (2021). Redlines and Greenspace: The Relationship between Historical Redlining and 2010 Greenspace across the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp7495
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
