The Spanish Airport-System: Lessons of Efficiency and Sustainability

May combine two claims.

73% of Spanish airports are not profitable because they do not have enough passengers per year to cover their operating costs.

“This means that 73% of the Spanish airports are not profitable: these airports do not have enough number of passengers per year (airlines) in order to cover their operating costs.”

May combine two claims.

Plan Malaga had a new terminal open in 2010 but with the same average of passengers as before having the new terminal.

“One example of over-investment (wrong forecast) is the Plan Malaga with a new terminal open in 2010, but with the same average of passengers before having the new terminal.”

May combine two claims.

Air fare increments from 2010 to 2011 were +2,767% for Madrid Airport and +2,116% for Barcelona.

“The increments are to the extent of +2,767% for Madrid Airport or + 2,116% for Barcelona from 2010 to 2011 (ACETA).”

• cites ACETANot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

These small airports have increased public financial liabilities and recognised significant financial expenses in their individual financial statements.

“Instead, these airports have seen increased the public financial liabilities and have recognised significant financial expenses in their individual financial statements.”

May combine two claims.

Profitable Spanish airports are located in touristic zones, with Barcelona achieving the maximum profit in 2013, followed by Palma de Mallorca, Tenerife South, Gran Canaria, Alicante, Lanzarote, Ibiza, Sevilla, Bilbao and Fuerteventura; Madrid is a hub, and Girona and Valencia are connectors potentially affected by seasonality.

“The airports that are profitable are located in touristic zones (Barcelona achieves the maximum profit in 2013 followed by Palma de Mallorca; Tenerife South; Gran Canaria; Alicante; Lanzarote; Ibiza; Sevilla; Bilbao and Fuerteventura); there is one hub (Madrid) and airports used as connectors to other airports or cities and therefore, potentially affected by a season effect (Girona; Valencia).”

May combine two claims.

Malaga airport shows significant positive EBIDTAs across the years, but due to depreciation and financial expenses incurred to finance capacity investment it becomes a non-profitable airport from 2010.

“Malaga airport shows significant positive EBIDTAs across the years, nevertheless due to the depreciation along with the financial expenses incurred to finance the investment made in capacity becomes a no profitable airport from 2010.”

May combine two claims.

After deducting depreciation, only 31% of Spanish airports had a positive operational result, 15 airports out of 49.

“After deducting the depreciation, only 31% of the airports had a positive operational result; these are 15 airports out of 49 currently existent in the Spanish Airport-System.”

May combine two claims.

In all regressions performed, the standard errors (for non-significant variables) differ from each other as well as the coefficients, indicating no presence of collinearity.

“In all the regressions performed the standard errors (for no significant variables) differ from each other as well as the coefficient indicating the no presence of collinearity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Each Spanish airport has a relatively significant different number of flights per year, number and type of airlines operating, and current and potential passengers.

“Each airport should be analysed independently from the others because each airport has a relatively significant different number of flights per year, number and type of airlines operating, current and potential passengers, etc.”

May combine two claims.

The regression of aeronautical revenues for the biggest airport (Table 5) shows a significant influence of annual depreciation (P=0.021), but with negative impact (β=-0.9050): the higher the charge per depreciation due to bigger capacity, the lower the aeronautical revenues.

“This is confirmed by the regression of the aeronautical revenues for the biggest airport (see Table 5) showing a significant influence of the annual depreciation (𝑃𝑃 > |𝐼𝐼| = 0.021), but with negative impact (𝛽𝛽𝑋𝑋 = -0.9050): the higher de charge per depreciation due to bigger capacity, the lower the aeronautical revenues.”

May combine two claims.

In 2012, the depreciation of non-current assets of Palma de Mallorca represents 13% of the depreciation of Madrid and 24% of the total depreciation in Barcelona.

“In 2012, the depreciation of the non-current assets of Palma de Mallorca represents the 13% of the depreciation of Madrid and the 24% of the total depreciation in Barcelona.”

May combine two claims.

In 2012, Barcelona achieves a high and similar gross margin (+214.43 million euro) compared to Madrid (+201.79), showing that with less investment in physical capital it is possible to achieve similar results.

“With this regard in 2012, Barcelona achieves a high and similar gross margin (+214,43 million of euro) compared to Madrid (+201,79), showing that with less investment in physical capital it is possible to achieve similar results.”

May combine two claims.

Consequently, Malaga is technically efficient (82.35% in 2009), and this efficiency makes the airport also profitable accounting efficient (+34.01 million euro).

“Consequently, not only Malaga is technically efficient (82.35% in 2009), but this efficiency makes the airport to become also profitable accounting efficient (+ 34.01 million of euro).”

May combine two claims.

Discussions with airports' managers indicate that AENA uses very aggressive percentages of depreciation, which seem not to be related to the reality of the Spanish airports business model.

“Discussions with airports' managers have highlighted that AENA uses (dictates) very aggressive percentages of depreciation, and therefore these seem not to be related to the reality of the Spanish airports business model.”

May combine two claims.

The results for all regressions show VIF values higher than 10: wages 18.92, depreciation 112.61, other operating costs 325.08, passengers 73.54, ATM 47.56, cargo 16.78, aeronautical income 52.45, and commercial income 120.44.

“The results for all regressions show higher values of 10 (when wages is regressed among the other inputs and outputs its VIF is 18.92; for depreciation the VIF is 112.61 and for other operating costs 325.08In the output side the VIF for passengers is 73.54; for ATM 47.56; for cargo 16.78; for aeronautical income 52.45 and for commercial income 120.44).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The expense per depreciation of Malaga across the years is due to an expanding process started in 2005 by AENA called Plan Malaga.

“Effectively the expense per depreciation of Malaga across the years is due to an expanding process started in 2005 by AENA called Plan Malaga.”

May combine two claims.

The first DEA including all airports highlights as technically efficient (100%) in at least one year and with consistently high scores in the rest of the years Madrid and Palma de Mallorca.

“The first DEA when including all the airports highlights as technically efficient airports (100%) in at least one year and with consistency high scores in the rest of the years Madrid and Palma de Mallorca18.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If an airport has a high number of passengers, both aeronautical (0.9619) and commercial income (0.9826) would be expected to be higher.

“Also if an airport has a high number of passengers, both the aeronautical (0.9619) and the commercial income (0.9826) would be expected to be higher.”

May combine two claims.

There is no consistency regarding the relevance of the inputs and outputs in the different regressions; some inputs and outputs are not significant in specific models, but in other models are significant.

“As it seen, there is no consistency regarding the relevance of the inputs and outputs in the different regressions.Some inputs and outputs are no significant in specific models, but in other models are significant.”

May combine two claims.

In 2009 Malaga has a really low charge per depreciation; Palma de Mallorca is 48% higher compared to Malaga.

“In 2009 Malaga has a really low charge per depreciation (in fact Palma de Mallorca is 48% higher compared to Malaga).”

May combine two claims.

In 2010 both Barcelona and Madrid had similar negative gross margin (-87.32 Barcelona; -82.73 Madrid), but in 2009 Madrid's result (-121.30) represents three times more the losses of Barcelona (-38.52).

“In 2010 both airports had similar negative gross margin (-87,32 Barcelona; -82,73 Madrid), but in 2009 Madrid's result (-121,30) represents three times more the losses of Barcelona (-38,52).”

May combine two claims.

The new terminal at Malaga was opened in 2010; from 2005 to 2012 there are no significant changes in the number of passengers per year at Malaga, being on average 12.6 million.

“The new terminal was opened in 2010.Nevertheless from 2005 to 2012 there are not significant changes in the number of passengers per year being in average 12.6 million21.”

May combine two claims.

After the new terminal opened in 2010, Malaga increased significantly the expense per depreciation (+124%); because the number of passengers is similar in the following years, the new terminal makes Malaga become not profitable across years (gross margin decreases -161% from 2009 to 2010) and drop its efficiency progressively (65.72% in 2010; 62.90% in 2011; 55.08% in 2012).

“After the new terminal is opened in 2010, Malaga increases significantly the expense per depreciation (+124%).The fact that the number of passengers is similar in the following years, the new terminal makes the airport to become not profitable across years (the gross margin decreases in -161% from 2009 to 2010), and also to drop its efficiency progressively (65.72% in 2010; 62.90% in 2011; 55.08%”

May combine two claims.

Palma de Mallorca has 80% more passengers than Malaga and five times more cargo on a constant basis, but its charge per depreciation is half of the depreciation accrued by Malaga (except for 2009).

“Palma de Mallorca has 80% more passengers than Malaga and five times more cargo on a constant basis, but its charge per depreciation is half of the depreciation accrued by Malaga (except for 2009).”

May combine two claims.

In conclusion, the tests demonstrate that although correlation between inputs and outputs is high, these relations do not show the presence of collinearity and therefore there is no need to remove them from the initial sample.

“In conclusion these tests demonstrate that although the correlation between inputs and outputs is high, these relations between variables do not show the presence of collinearity and therefore, there is no need to remove them from the initial sample.”

May combine two claims.

Barcelona's gross margin variation from 2009 to 2010, before the new fees were applied to airlines, was a decrease of -127%, mainly explained by the depreciation charge of the new terminal building.

“the variation in the gross margin from 2009 to 2010 (before the new fees are applied to the airlines) experiments a decrease of -127% mainly explained by the charge per depreciation of the new terminal building.”

May combine two claims.

Although there is not a significant increase in the number of passengers, the efficiency level of Barcelona airport seems not to be affected, showing high efficiency levels in all years (average 86.35%).

“Nevertheless, although there is not a significant increase in the number of passengers, the efficiency level of Barcelona airport seems not to be affected though, showing high efficiency levels in all the years (average of 86.35%).”

May combine two claims.

Malaga experienced a significant increase in expense per depreciation of +124% from 2009 to 2010, then only +24% (2010-11) and +10%.

“Malaga experiments a significant increase in the expense per depreciation of + 124% from 2009 to 2010, but then only + 24% (2010-11) and +10% .”

May combine two claims.

All medium airports are not profitable except Girona, which has a significant value of EBITDA.

“All the medium airports are not profitable except Girona that has a significant value of EBIDTA.”

May combine two claims.

All small airports are not profitable from 2009 to 2012 and only four of them are overall technically efficient.

“All the small airports are not profitable from 2009 to 2012 and only four of them are overall technically efficient.”

May combine two claims.

In the regression of average efficiency explained by variation in passengers, cargo and average cargo, the only significant variable is average cargo (P > |I| = 0.030) with a negative regression coefficient.

“The only significant variable is the average of cargo (𝑃𝑃 > |𝐼𝐼| = 0.030) with a negative regression coefficient.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

This process starts happening from the beginning of 2011 when the low-cost airline Ryanair reduced significantly most of the services in Girona and transferred them to Barcelona airport.

“This process starts happening from the beginning of 2011 when the low-cost airline Ryanair reduced significantly most of the services in Girona and transfer them to Barcelona airport.”

May combine two claims.

For Barcelona, the charge per depreciation increased by +26% from 2009 to 2010, corresponding to the new terminal building, then varied by only +1% from 2010 to 2011 and decreased by -2% from 2011 to 2012.

“For example, for Barcelona the charge per depreciation increases in +26% from 2009 to 2010, this corresponds to the new terminal building, but then from 2010 to 2011 the variation in depreciation is only +1% and even a decrease in -2% from 2011 to 2012.”

May combine two claims.

The charge per depreciation has a high correlation with other operating costs (+0.8285) and wages (+0.8415), showing that the bigger the airport regarding capacity, the more likely to incur higher operational costs indirectly related to airport activity and employee costs.

“The charge per depreciation has a high correlation with other operating costs (+0.8285) as well as wages (+0.8415) showing that the bigger the airport regarding capacity (infrastructure) the more likely to incur in higher operational costs indirectly related to the airport activity (utilities; rent, etc.) as well as employee costs.”

May combine two claims.

Barcelona's new terminal building was designed to expand capacity to 55 million passengers, but it was only used at 57.29% (average 31.5 million passengers from 2009 to 2012).

“the new terminal building should expand the current capacity to a total of 55 million passengers but, it is only used in a 57.29% ( 31.5 million in average from 2009 to 2012).”

May combine two claims.

Overall small airports increase their efficiency between 1% and 20% and from 38% to 52% for the three airports with higher number of passengers (San Sebastian, Valladolid and Pamplona).

“Overall small airports increase their efficiency between 1% and 20% and from 38% to 52% for the three airports with higher number of passengers (San Sebastian, Valladolid and Pamplona).”

May combine two claims.

The medium airports that show more variability in their scores are A Coruna, Girona and Menorca, which after being frontier (100% efficient) in 2009 experience a significant decrease in their efficiency levels.

“The airports that show more variability in their scores are A Coruna; Girona and Menorca than after being frontier (100% efficient) in 2009 experiment a significant decrease in their efficiency levels.”

May combine two claims.

For larger airports, Palma de Mallorca is the most efficient with an average score of 96.52% and Malaga is the least efficient with an average of 66.51%.

“For instance, for the larger airports, Palma de Mallorca is the most efficient airport with an average score of 96.52% and Malaga is the less efficient with an average of 66.51%.”

May combine two claims.

The number of passengers at Barcelona merely increases from 2009 to 2012, with the most significant increase +17.68% from 2010 to 2011 (average increment +28.05%; specifically +6.45% from 2009 to 2010; +2.21% 2011-12; +0.26% 2012-13).

“The number of passengers merely increases from 2009 to 2012 being the most significant increase +17.68% from 2010 to 2011 (the average increment is +28.05%; and specifically +6.45% from 2009 to 2010; +2.21% 2011-12; +0.26% 2012-13).”

May combine two claims.

There is a high correlation between the number of passengers and both types of revenues (aeronautical +0.9577; commercial +9474).

“This is also confirmed by the high correlation between the number of passengers and both type of revenues (aeronautical +0.9577; commercial +9474).”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Girona is the only medium airport that achieves significant positive gross margins in 2009 (+23.90 million of euro) and in 2010 (+17.63).

“Girona is the only airport that achieves significant positive gross margins in 2009 (+23.90 million of euro) and in 2010 (+17.63)”

May combine two claims.

For Barcelona the increase in fees is 2,116% and for Madrid 2,767% (ACETA, October 2011).

“For Barcelona the increase in fees is 2,116% and for Madrid 2,767% (ACETA, October 2011).”

• cites ACETA, October 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The aeronautical fees were increased in a two-step process and these fees are paid by the operating airlines, ending up in more aeronautical revenues for the airports.

“The aeronautical fees are increased in two step process and these fees are to be paid by the operating airlines, ending up in more aeronautical revenues for the airports.”

May combine two claims.

For medium airports, Murcia is the most technically efficient with an average of 92.36% and La Palma the least efficient with 63.80%.

“For medium airports, Murcia is the most technically efficient with an average of 92.36% and La Palma the least efficient with 63.80%.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

All medium airports experience a decrease in the number of passengers from 2011 to 2012 except Santander (+16.64%).

“All the airports experiment a decrease in the number of passengers from 2011 to 2012 except Santander (+16.64%).”

The quote only partly states this claim.

All medium airports drop their efficiency levels from 2009 to 2012.

“Again, all the airports drop their efficiency levels from 2009 to 2012.”

May combine two claims.

The regression of efficiency scores with all inputs and outputs shows that the number of passengers does not affect technical efficiency (P > |I| = 0.609), but cargo (P > |I| = 0.000) does, as do costs of developing ordinary business (wages, depreciation, other operating costs).

“The regression of the efficiency scores with all the inputs and outputs (see Table 9), shows that the number of passengers does not affect the technical efficiency (𝑃𝑃 > |𝐼𝐼| = 0.609), but cargo (𝑃𝑃 > |𝐼𝐼| = 0.000) does as well as the costs of developing the ordinary course of business (wages of employees; depreciation of assets and other operating costs).”

May combine two claims.

From 2009 to 2012 the average number of passengers in Madrid is 48.3 million; there are no significant changes in each year (+2.95% from 2009 to 2010; -0.39% from 2010 to 2011; -9.02% from 2011 to 2012 and -12.07% from 2011 to 2012).

“Indeed, from 2009 to 2012 the number of passengers in average is 48.3 million; there is not significant changes in each year (+ 2.95% from 2009 to 2010; -0.39% from 2010 to 2011; -9.02% from 2011 to 2012 and -12.07% from 2011 to 2012).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Madrid is an outlier since it is the only hub in Spain.

“Madrid is an outlier since it is the only hub in Spain.”

May combine two claims.

Overall the number of passengers in Madrid decreased by 17.96% between 2009 and 2012, but aeronautical income increased by 28% from 2010 to 2011 and by 18% from 2011 to 2012.

“Overall the number of passengers has decreased in 17.96% between 2009 and 2012, but the aeronautical income increases significantly in a 28% (from 2010 to 2011) and in 18% (from 2011 to 2012).”

May combine two claims.

The fee increase represents an improvement of 189% in Madrid's previous gross margin, changing from a no-profitable airport (-82.73 million) to a positive gross margin in 2011 (73.44 million).

“These represent an improvement of 189% in Madrid's previous gross margin changing from being a no-profitable airport (-82.73 million) to achieve a positive gross margin in 2011 (73.44 million).”

May combine two claims.

The Spanish Airport-System agglomerates 21 small airports (with not more than 750,000 passengers per year), 14 big airports (more than 3,500,000 passengers per year), and 13 medium airports.

“The Spanish Airport-System agglomerates 21 small airports (with not more than 750,000 passengers per year) compared to 14 big airports (more than 3,500,000 passengers per year) and 13 medium.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Zaragoza is one of the airports with more passengers and cargo across the years of the study.

“Zaragoza is one of the airports with more number of passengers and also cargo across the years of the study.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

All big airports have positive EBIDTAs.

“Finally, all big airports have positive EBIDTAs”

May combine two claims.

Small airports achieve reasonable technical efficiency scores that are consistent across the years.

“Overall small airports seem to achieve reasonable technical efficiency scores that it is consistent across the years”

May combine two claims.

For medium airports, only four achieve a positive EBIDTA, with small values except for Girona.

“For the medium airports, only four achieve a positive EBIDTA, but with a significant small values except for Girona.”

May combine two claims.

Wrong (excessive) investment decisions imply public external debt with consequent financial expenses accrued in individual airports' income statements, waiving positive operational results.

“Furthermore, wrong (excessive) investment decisions implies public external debt with the consequent impact of financial expenses accrued in the individual airports' income statement waiving positive operational results.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Smaller airports could be more efficient than larger ones.

“Smaller airports could be in this sense more efficient than larger ones.”

May combine two claims.

Based on the current needs of the Spanish market, the expansion of small airports was not required and has translated into over-capacity (idle resources) for most airports.

“Based on the current needs of the Spanish market, the expansion of small airports' was not required and consequently, this has been translated into an over-capacity (idle resources) for most of the airports.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Airports with negative gross margins when technically efficient could obtain better financial results if competition is allowed.

“Since airports achieving profits cross-subsidized the ones that achieve negative gross margin, it could be discussed that airports with negative gross margins when technically efficient could obtain better financial results if competition is allowed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Wrong investment decisions can lead airports not to use fully their current capacity and therefore to have over-capacity for the amount of activity performed.

“It could be discussed that wrong investment decisions can lead to airports not to use fully their current capacity (infrastructure) and therefore with an over-capacity for the amount of activity performed (namely traffic).”

May combine two claims.

Annual depreciation due to over-investment decisions based on non-transparent forecast expansions makes airports not technically efficient and achieve an excessive negative gross margin.

“The impact of the annual depreciation due to over-investments' decisions based on no-transparent forecast expansions, not only makes airports not to be technically efficient (idle resources), but to achieve an excessive negative gross margin.”

May combine two claims.

When the owner is the government, objectives are not clearly defined and change in every legislative period.

“The reasonable explanation is that when the owner is the government, the objectives are not clearly defined and also they change in every legatorial period (8,27,51).”

• cites [8]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [27]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [51]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The danger of a misused monopoly tends to appear because owners are interested in earning higher results quickly.

“The danger of a monopoly misused tends to appear because of the interest of the owners to earn higher results and in a fast way.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Air Transportation Association estimated the value of inefficiency in air traffic cost to airlines at more than 3 billion dollars in 1995.

“The Air Transportation Association (ATA) estimated the value of inefficiency in the air traffic cost to the airlines companies more than 3 billion of dollars in 1995 ( 48)”

• cites [48]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The absence of airport competition with geographical, political and regulatory restrictions does not allow measures to measure the efficiency of airports.

“The absence of airport competition with geographical, political and regulatory restrictions, do not allow measures to measure the efficiency of airports (58)”

• cites [58]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Theories regarding whether government or market is preferred should be tested.

“Nevertheless Gormley (38) states that theories regarding to which one is preferred government or market, should be tested.”

• cites Gormley [38]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The British major airports Gatwick, Heathrow and Stansted improved their technical efficiency after privatization in 1987.

“The deregulated model of ownership by excellence is the case of the British major airports (Gatwick, Heathrow and Stansted) which have improved their technical efficiency after privatization in 1987.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Variables such as runways and terminal capacity must be taken into consideration to attend peak demands and avoid potential delays.

“They consider that variables such as runways and terminal capacity must be taken into consideration in order to attend the peak demands and avoid potential delays.”

• cites Gillen and Llall [41]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

It is not evidenced which is the effective way to assess airports' performance when fully government owned and managed.

“It is not evidenced which is the effective way to assess the airports' performance when fully government owned and managed.”

May combine two claims.

The Spanish airport industry has too much capacity for current operational activity and for expected demand forecasts.

“Consequently, the Spanish airport industry not only has too much capacity for the current operational activity, but also for the expected demand forecasts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Competition is good for the economy as it pushes companies to be cost efficient, driving down prices and expanding output.

“Starkie (75) points out that competition is good for the economy as it pushes companies to be cost efficient: to drive down prices leading to expanding levels of output.”

• cites Starkie [75]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Different ownership forms, regardless of fully government or private ownership, increase cost efficiency.

“Different ownership forms regardless of fully ownership government or private increase cost efficiency (62).”

• cites [62]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The main reason to privatise Australian airports and other government-owned businesses is the reduction of government debt without raising taxes.

“The main reason to privatise Australian airports and other type of business owned by governments is the reduction of government debt without raising taxes (46).”

• cites [46]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There are additional difficulties when assessing the relationship between ownership and performance because privatisation enhances revenues, whereas government could focus on financial resources or decisions based on increasing social welfare.

“There are additional difficulties when assessing the relationship between ownership and performance since privatisation enhances revenues (ICAO states in their report [91] that commercial revenues are as important overall as aeronautical revenues), whereas the government could be more focused on providing financial resources or decisions based on increasing social welfare.”

• cites ICAONot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [91]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Strong evidence through the literature shows that airports with government majority ownership are less efficient than those with a private majority.

“Strong evidence through the literature shows that airports with government majority ownership are less efficient than those with a private majority”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Private participation is an efficient and cost-effective way for the government to maximise revenue and improve customer and quality services.

“Humphries (47) defends private participation since it is an efficient and cost effective way for the government to maximise revenue and at the same time to improve customer and quality services.”

• cites Humphries [47]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Although airports seem to compete due to geographical proximity, they do not have enough airlines, routes and passengers to use efficiently their actual infrastructure, which ends in an idle resource (over-investment).

“Although airports seem to compete due to geographical proximity, they merely have not enough airlines, routes and passengers to use efficiently their actual infrastructure which ends in an idle resource (over-investment).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The relation between ownership and performance cannot be assessed on its own; policy concerns must be taken into consideration.

“The relation between ownership and performance cannot be assessed on its own, it is necessary to take into consideration policy concerns (8).”

• cites [8]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Airports with high initial cost of investments will incur higher depreciation charges and consequently have a higher break-even point.

“Airports with high initial cost of investments will incur in higher depreciation charges and consequently having a higher break-even point.”

May combine two claims.

Since airports cannot increase aeronautical revenues at the same rhythm as investments are made, depreciation accrued makes most airports achieve negative profit and does not reflect a true and fair view of their technical efficiency.

“Since airports are not able to increase their aeronautical revenues at the same rhythm that investments are made, not only the depreciation accrued makes most of airports to achieve negative profit (losses), but does not reflect a true and fair view of their technical efficiency.”

May combine two claims.

In an airport-system, financial trade-offs for an airport include the possibility of receiving professional managerial advice as well as cross-subsidies.

“In the case of an airport-system, this is more than one airport managed by the same company, the financial trade-offs for an airport include the possibility of receiving professional managerial advise as well as cross-subsidies.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Since airports are different regarding services offered, in a competitive environment the market will equal profitability and the optimal performance for each airport.

“Since airports are different regarding the services offered, in a competitive environment the market will equal profitability and the optimal performance for each airport 13”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The way airports use their infrastructure to generate their main activity affects airports' technical efficiency.

“As it has seen, the way that airports use their infrastructure to generate their main activity will also affect the airports' technical efficiency.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Spanish airports do not compete because they do not have enough airlines operating and different airports cover different routes.

“firstly airports do not compete because they do not have enough airlines operating and different airports cover different routes”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Market imperfections are not a sufficient justification for government regulation.

“Market imperfections are not a sufficient justification for government regulation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An open market is the efficient way for the government to maximise revenues without losing customer services and quality.

“An open market is the efficient way for the government to maximise revenues without losing customer services and quality (32).”

• cites [32]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Deregulation and liberalization of the air transport industry allows airports to compete for airlines and passengers, making the airport market more competitive and dynamic.

“Deregulation and liberalization of the air transport industry allows airports to compete with each other for both airlines and passengers and as a consequence, the airport market becomes more competitive and dynamic (CNMC, 89).”

• cites CNMC, 89Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Spanish airports' management does not enhance competition and transfers financial resources from profitable airports to airports with losses.

“Additionally, the Spanish airports' management not only does not enhance competition, but ensures transferring financial resources from profitable airports to airports with losses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

ICAO recommends avoiding regulation of airports in areas where competition is already effective in order to avoid detriment to customers.

“The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) recommends avoiding regulation of airports in areas where competition is already effective in order to avoid detriment of customers ( 91)”

• cites [91]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Airports would charge higher fees than actually required, ending in an unfair final price discriminatory compared to other European airports' businesses.

“In consequence, airports would be charging higher fees compared to what is actually required, ending in an unfair final price discriminatory compared to other European airports' businesses.”

May combine two claims.

The profitability of airports depends on traffic volume, as aeronautical revenues increase with the number of passengers whereas costs increase slower due to the fixed component of infrastructure depreciation.

“The profitability of airports depend on the traffic volume, as aeronautical revenues increase depending on the number of passengers whereas the costs increase slower due to the fixed component of the depreciation of the infrastructure.”

May combine two claims.

In the Spanish Airport-System the Government has over-invested in airport infrastructure without enough airlines to make the existing capacity efficient.

“Nevertheless, in the Spanish Airport-System the Government has over-invested in airports infrastructure (expansion of current capacities) without even having enough airlines to make the existent capacity efficient.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It is not clear which combination of management and ownership forms is more effective in airports' performance.

“Despite the interest in analysing the effects of different management and ownership forms in airports' performance, it is not cleared which combination is more effective.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Airline companies choose airports depending on their efficiency level, tending to select more efficient ones.

“Sarkis ( 74) considers that airline companies choose airports depending on their efficiency level tending to select those that are more efficient.”

• cites Sarkis [74]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In the Spanish market, where no competition exists, airports do not have individual management to facilitate flexibility in decision making and are cross-subsidized, so there are no incentives to maximise profits.

“As it has been seen, in the Spanish market where not competition exists; airports do not have their own individual management in order to facilitate the flexibility in the decision making process and airports are cross-subsidized, there are no incentives to maximise profits.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Airports managed independently achieve higher levels of market orientation, resulting in higher commercial and aeronautical revenues as well as lower costs.

“Airports managed independently achieve higher levels of market orientation, resulting in higher commercial and aeronautical revenues as well as lower costs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Airport conditions are linked with customer satisfaction.

“These authors link the airport conditions with the customer satisfaction as well.”

• cites Gillen and Llall [41]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The rhythm of the economy affects airport efficiency directly because all factors are exogenous and inputs cannot be changed yearly.

“They state that the rhythm of the economy affects straight on to airport efficiency because all factors are exogenous and therefore the inputs cannot be changed yearly 12 .”

• cites Gillen and Llall [41]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The main reasons behind privatisation are the unused potential of government-owned airports and the natural monopoly of terminals and runways that remain after privatisation.

“The main reasons behind privatisation are the unused potential of the government owned airports that should be used, but more important the natural monopoly of terminals and runways that remain after privatisation has been concluded11.”

• cites Gerber [35]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If the regulator were independent from the Government, the accounting results and technical efficiency of airports could improve.

“It could be discussed that if the regulator was independent to the Government, the accounting results as well as the technical efficiency of airports could improve.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is a correlation between unjustified significant increases in airports' aeronautical revenues and over-investment decisions in infrastructure such as Plan Malaga and Plan Barcelona.

“Overall, it seems to be a correlation between unjustified significant increases in the airports' aeronautical revenues and over-investment decisions in infrastructure (such as Plan Malaga and Plan Barcelona).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Empirical evidence comparing performance before and after privatisation concludes that private ownership in competitive markets represents the conditions for improving current performance.

“Empirical evidence comparing the performance before and after privatisation concludes that private ownership in competitive markets represents the conditions for improving the current performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Overall standardized decision-making processes imply operational inefficiency and ineffectiveness because there is no flexibility for short-term decisions required to become competitive.

“Overall standardized decision making processes imply inefficiency from an operational perspective and ineffectiveness: there is not-flexibility regarding short-term decisions which are required to be made and resolved as 7 Earnings before interest, depreciation, taxes and amortisation.quick as possible in order to become competitive.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The conditions with which airports must survive are not competitive at all due to regulatory, political, social and geographical constraints.

“Gillen and Llall (41) point out that the conditions with airports must survive are not competitive at all due to the constraints such as regulatory, political or even social and geographical.”

• cites Gillen and Llall [41]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pestana and Dieke prove that fully private managed airports have higher efficiency compared to partially privatised airports.

“Pestana and Dieke (68) also prove that fully private managed airports have higher efficiency compared to partially privatised.”

• cites Pestana and Dieke [68]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Private ownership does not necessarily improve company performance.

“private ownership model does not necessarily improve the company performance (8)”

• cites [8]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As a consequence, privatisation becomes a process against the interest of airlines and customers.

“As a consequence, privatisation becomes a process against the interest of airlines and customers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Privatisation may cause less quality and safety instead of an increase of efficiency because investment has not been carried out.

“Furthermore privatisation may then cause less quality and safety instead of an increase of efficiency because investment has not been carried out.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Under private ownership, revenue increases because resources are diverted to airport activities able to provide cash-flow; activities without revenue impact do not receive investments.

“Under private ownership, the increase of revenues is due to the deviation of resources to airport activities able to provide cash-flow: activities that they do not have impact in the revenues do not receive investments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If the percentage of depreciation is too high based on how aeronautical revenues are earned, the expected increment on airports' fees for the following period would not reflect the reality of the airports' business.

“Considering the depreciation of assets if the percentage of deprecation is too high based on how the aeronautical revenues are earned, it could be discussed that the expected increment on airports' fees for the following period would not be reflecting the reality of the airports' business.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Airports have to compete with other areas of public expenditure such as health and education in order to receive adequate financial resources.

“Nevertheless airports have to compete with other areas of public expenditure such as health and education in order to receive the adequate financial resources (32)”

• cites [32]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If the ownership form affects the production level, it will also influence the company's efficiency when resources are limited or production is capped.

“If the ownership form affects the production level, it will also influence the company's efficiency when the resources are limited or the production is capped.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Malaga must be subsidised by profitable airports such as Barcelona, Madrid and Palma de Mallorca.

“Consequently, Malaga must be subsidised by profitable airports such as Barcelona, Madrid and Palma de Mallorca.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Jensen and Meckling consider ownership forms as part of the production function because they limit the feasible production of companies by deciding among technology and resources.

“Jensen and Meckling (49) consider ownership forms as part of the production function since they limit the feasible production of companies by deciding among technology and resources8.”

• cites Jensen and Meckling [49]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Oum pleads for a sensible view to consider airports owned by governments less efficient than being owned by private companies in the same conditions.

“Oum (61) pleads for a sensible view to consider airports owned by governments less efficient than being owned by private companies in the same conditions.”

• cites Oum [61]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

A mixed ownership model may provide a chance to achieve the best of both public and private sectors.

“The fact of having a mixed ownership model may provide a chance to achieve the best of both public and private sectors: private ownership model does not necessarily improve the company”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Privatisation improves efficiency technically and economically, but especially allows governments to provide the necessary investment that airports cannot achieve.

“Privatisation improves efficiency technically and economically, but especially allows governments to provide the necessary investment that airports cannot achieve: government investments in infrastructures are required in order to end recessions and to increase the current productivity (25)9.”

• cites [25]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

If the natural monopoly is misused, conflicts may appear regarding the main objectives between owners and society.

“If the natural monopoly is misused, conflicts may appear regarding the main objectives between the owners and the society.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

If an airport has too much capacity, it will become scale inefficient because with fewer employees and infrastructure it is possible to achieve the same expected number of flights per day.

“If an airport has too much capacity (for instance too much employees, terminal buildings, checking desks not used, etc.) it will become scale inefficient, because with less number of employees and infrastructure, it is possible to achieve the same amount expected of flights per day.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In the Spanish market, the level of airport activity (output) depends more on external factors such as flight demand and management decisions (airline attraction, price, etc.) that are centralised by AENA.

“In the Spanish market the level of airport activity (output) seems to depend more on external factors such as demand of flights and other variables related to management decisions (attraction of airlines, price, etc.) that they are centralised decisions made by AENA.”

May combine two claims.

Although an airport may have higher capacity (measured through investments in infrastructure) compared to other airports, this does not ensure achieving higher gross margin; there is no relation between how big an airport is in terms of infrastructure and its aeronautical revenues, since these depend on how well the airport uses its capacity to develop the ordinary course of business (passengers,

“These results show that although an airport may have higher capacity (measured for instance through investments in infrastructure) compared to other airports20, does not ensure achieving higher gross margin: there is no relation between how big is an airport in terms of infrastructure and its aeronautical revenues since these depend on how well the airports uses its capacity to develop the”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

DEA is useful in sectors where prices and costs are unknown or outputs are difficult to define, such as hospitals, councils, banks, governments, etc.

“Therefore, this methodology is really useful in sectors where prices and costs are unknown or the outputs are difficult to define such as hospitals, councils, banks, governments, etc.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Unknown purchasing costs of inputs are relatively difficult to estimate.

“In this paper the technological efficiency concept is evaluated since the unknown purchasing costs of the inputs are relatively difficult to estimate.”

May combine two claims.

DEA does not require price information: variables can be measured in currency or physical units without disaggregation.

“DEA does not require price information: variables can be measured in currency or physical units without any need to disaggregate them.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In this paper, analysing more than one period responds to the need to provide dynamism to the DEA frontier.

“In this paper the fact of analysing more than one period responds to the need of providing dynamism to the DEA frontier.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Due to investments' decisions made by the Spanish Government in recent years, airports that have experienced excessive expansions without proportional demand increase will become technically inefficient, and the expansion managerial decisions would have been wrongly made.

“Due to the investments' decisions made by the Spanish Government in the latest years, it could be discussed that airports which have experimented excessive expansions without a proportional increase of their demand (traffic) will become technically inefficient and by extension, the expansion managerial decisions would have been wrongly made.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Spanish Government (AENA) has provided excessive investments in capital.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Authors agree that governments cannot provide the necessary investment to supply enough airport activity for congested airports.

“Authors agree that governments cannot provide the necessary investment to supply enough airport activity for congested airports (high volume of traffic).”

May combine two claims.

The depreciation of airport infrastructure is the most plausible explanation for most Spanish airports becoming not only non-profitable but also technically inefficient: these are airports with capacity not used in their main activity (over-capacity).

“As it has been seeing, the depreciation of the airport infrastructure is the most plausible explanations for most of the Spanish airports to become not only no-profitable, but also technically inefficient: these are airports with capacity not used in their main activity (over-capacity).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

High correlation between all variables may imply a potential problem of collinearity, since there is a perfect linear relation among the variables.

“This may imply a potential problem of collinearity, since there is a perfect linear relation among the variables.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

One disadvantage of DEA is that it is very sensitive to potential outliers and provides unreliable results when the number of inputs and outputs is much larger compared to observations.

“One of its disadvantages is that it is very sensitive towards potential outliers and provides unreliable results when the number of inputs and outputs are much larger compared to the observations (58).”

• cites [58]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Total factor productivity indexes allow aggregation but require cost information and further research if results will be used in management strategies and decision processes.

“Total factor productivity indexes allow the aggregation, but require costs information and further research if the results will be used in management strategies and making decision processes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Privatisation increases competition, but it seems to generate a potential conflict of interests between government and private owner-operators and also a bias from aeronautical activities to commercials in order to finance operating costs.

“Privatisation increases competition, but it seems to generate a potential conflict of interests between government and private owner-operators and also a bias from aeronautical activities to commercials in order to finance the operating costs of running the airport.”

May combine two claims.

The fact that Malaga airport is not over-dimensioned implies that Malaga uses its resources in an efficient way, using most of its capacity for the current activity.

“Additionally, the fact that the airport is not over-dimensioned, implies that Malaga uses its resources in an efficient way, this is Malaga uses most of its capacity for the current activity.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

DEA draws the relation between outputs and inputs as an efficiency production surface achievable with current technology or management strategy applied by the company.

“DEA draws the relation between outputs and inputs as an efficiency production surface which can be achieved with the current technology or management strategy applied by the company (41).”

• cites [41]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.