The Sex Difference in Depression Across 29 Countries
Abstract
The sex difference in depression is well documented in westernized, developed societies, although there has been little quantitative cross- cultural research on the topic. In this study, we use multilevel logit models to examine sex differences in depression across 29 countries using data from the World Values Survey. We find that in no country are males more likely to be depressed than females. We also find that while levels of depression are higher in low gender equity countries, the gender gap in depression is larger in high gender equity countries.
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Two large multi-nation studies reported conflicting results, finding that the gender gap in depression was smaller and larger, respectively, in low gender-equity countries compared to high gender-equity countries.
“Two large multi-nation studies have reported conflicting results, finding that the gender gap in depression was smaller and larger, respectively, in low gender-equity countries compared to high gender-equity countries”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007
Females have higher rates of depression than males in most studies, with SMDs of 0.19-0.38.
“As has often been reported, females have in most studies been found to have higher rates of Depression (SMDs = 0.19–0.38; Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007
In old analyses, females have more symptoms, diagnoses, or feelings of depression in countries with higher living conditions.
“Considering studies from only the old analyses, we found that females have more symptoms, diagnoses, or feelings of depression in countries with higher living conditions (Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007
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Measurement for a Human Science
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2002) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/3090194 · Cited by 378 · cited 3× · see citing works
“This is by no means a diagnosis of clinical depression, nor is it a full index of the symptoms of depression, but an indicator of one of the symptoms of depression that is included in the majority of diagnostic instruments and indices of depression (Mirowsky and Ross 2002).”
BackgroundBEBBINGTON, P. E., DUNN, G., JENKINS, R., LEWIS, G., BRUGHA, T., FARRELL, M., & MELTZER, H. (1998) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291797006077 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
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Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y. (2017) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000102 · Cited by 2,622 · see citing works
“Two large multination studies have reported conflicting results, finding that the gender gap in depression was smaller and larger, respectively, in low gender-equity countries compared with high gender-equity countries (Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Van de Velde, Huijts, Bracke, & Bambra, 2013).”
Campbell, O., Bann, D., & Patalay, P. (2020) · doi:10.1101/2020.06.12.20129312 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
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Uncovering the hidden impacts of inequality on mental health: a global study
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Gender stereotypes can explain the gender-equality paradox
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Pornography use and depressive symptoms: examining the role of moral incongruence
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A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox
Herlitz, A., Hönig, I., Hedebrant, K., & Asperholm, M. (2025) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231202685 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“There were 11 studies that investigated sex differences in Mental health: nine in the old analyses (Batz-Barbarich et al., 2018; Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Su et al., 2019; Thijs et al., 2015; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et…”
InfluentialQueen’s Gambit Declined: The Gender-Equality Paradox in Chess Participation Across 160 Countries
Vishkin, A. (2022) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976211034806 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hopcroft, R. L., & Bradley, D. B.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Charlotte (US)
- Western Kentucky University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hopcroft, R. L.
- Venue
- Social Forces
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2007-06-01
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1483-1507
- ISSN
- 0037-7732 (ISSN-L)
- 1534-7605
- OpenAlex
- W2106122355
- Cited by
- 164
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 4.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Social Forces (publishedVersion)
- Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Gender, Health, and Social Inequality
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- sex differences in depression, gender equity, cross-national comparison, World Values Survey, gender inequality, mental health
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