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Clinicians' Implicit Ethnic/Racial Bias and Perceptions of Care Among Black and Latino Patients
Open accessAbstract
PURPOSE: We investigated whether clinicians' explicit and implicit ethnic/racial bias is related to black and Latino patients' perceptions of their care in established clinical relationships. METHODS: We administered a telephone survey to 2,908 patients, stratified by ethnicity/race, and randomly selected from the patient panels of 134 clinicians who had previously completed tests of explicit and implicit ethnic/racial bias. Patients completed the Primary Care Assessment Survey, which addressed their clinicians' interpersonal treatment, communication, trust, and contextual knowledge. We created a composite measure of patient-centered care from the 4 subscales. RESULTS: Levels of explicit bias were low among clinicians and unrelated to patients' perceptions. Levels of implicit bias varied among clinicians, and those with greater implicit bias were rated lower in patient-centered care by their black patients as compared with a reference group of white patients (P = .04). Latino patients gave the clinicians lower ratings than did other groups (P <.0001), and this did not depend on the clinicians' implicit bias (P = .98). CONCLUSIONS: This is among the first studies to investigate clinicians' implicit bias and communication processes in ongoing clinical relationships. Our findings suggest that clinicians' implicit bias may jeopardize their clinical relationships with black patients, which could have negative effects on other care processes. As such, this finding supports the Institute of Medicine's suggestion that clinician bias may contribute to health disparities. Latinos' overall greater concerns about their clinicians appear to be based on aspects of care other than clinician bias.
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“Three studies found a significant correlation between high levels of physicians’ implicit bias against blacks on IAT scores and interaction that was negatively rated by black patients [23, 24, 44]”
From Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: a systematic review (2017) · cites this paper as [44]
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“In some studies, the attitudes of patients towards healthcare professionals were recorded and used to evaluate clinical interaction [23, 24, 44].”
From Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: a systematic review (2017) · cites this paper as [44]
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“As our review shows, there is clearer evidence for a relationship between implicit bias and negative effects on clinical interaction [23, 24, 44].”
From Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: a systematic review (2017) · cites this paper as [44]
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“Four studies included participants who were not trained physicians or nurses and failed to report separate results for these categories of participants [42, 44, 49, 50].”
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“Both racial and weight-related biases are documented to influence healthcare interactions (18–20).”
From Regional trends and disparities in newer GLP1 receptor agonist initiation among real‐world adult patients eligible for obesity treatment (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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“These biases can impact how patients communicate with healthcare providers and their willingness to seek treatment for obesity, potentially leading to underutilization of effective treatments like newer AOM (18–20).”
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Patient Perceptions of Telephone vs. In‐Person BRCA1/BRCA2 Genetic Counseling
Peshkin, B. N., Kelly, S. P., Nusbaum, R. H., Similuk, M. N., DeMarco, T. A., Hooker, G. W., Valdimarsdottir, H. B., Forman, A. D., Rispoli, J., Davis, C. R., et al. (2015) · Journal of Genetic Counseling · doi:10.1007/s10897-015-9897-6 · Cited by 60
“Conversely, delivery by telephone may reduce differences in underlying implicit biases by genetic counselors (Schaa, Roter, Biesecker, Cooper, and Erby 2015), the occurrence of which has been reported in other medical settings (Blair et al. 2013; Cooper et al. 2012).”
BackgroundMeeting health and psychological needs of women in drug treatment court
Morse, D. S., Cerulli, C., Bedell, P. S., Wilson, J. L., Thomas, K. A., Mittal, M., Lamberti, J. S., Williams, G. C., Silverstein, J., Mukherjee, A., et al. (2013) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2013.08.017 · Cited by 59
“Also racial differences impact on the receipt of healthcare, trust, and communication quality (Blair et al., 2013).”
BackgroundRacial differences in parental satisfaction with neonatal intensive care unit nursing care
Martin, A. E., D’Agostino, J. A., Passarella, M. A., & Lorch, S. A. (2016) · Journal of Perinatology · doi:10.1038/jp.2016.142 · Cited by 59
Fiscella, K. A., Epstein, R. M., Griggs, J. J., Marshall, M., & Shields, C. G. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0257794 · Cited by 56
“In previous observational studies, higher implicit bias was often associated with lower quality of care for minority patients [3], including patient ratings of patient centered care [17,50], shorter visits [17] and physician verbal dominance [26,49,51].”
BackgroundHall, J. M., & Carlson, K. (2016) · ANS. Advances in nursing science · doi:10.1097/ans.0000000000000123 · Cited by 42
Factors Underlying Racial Disparities in Sepsis Management
DiMeglio, M., Dubensky, J., Schadt, S., Potdar, R. R., & Laudański, K. (2018) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare6040133 · Cited by 54
Anastas, T. M., Miller, M. M., Hollingshead, N. A., Stewart, J. C., Rand, K. L., & Hirsh, A. T. (2020) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaaa016 · Cited by 56
“In terms of providers’ explicit attitudes, strong links have not been found with clinical care [20, 21].”
BackgroundStrategies to Mitigate Clinician Implicit Bias Against Sexual and Gender Minority Patients.
McDowell, M., Goldhammer, H., Potter, J., & Keuroghlian, A. (2020) · Psychosomatics · doi:10.1016/j.psym.2020.04.021 · Cited by 34
Mateo, C. M., & Williams, D. R. (2020) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000003683 · Cited by 56
Brondolo, E. N., Ng, W. K. M., Jean-Pierre, K.-L., & Lane, R. (2016) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14852-006 · Cited by 53
Puddifoot, K. (2019) · Journal of Social Philosophy · doi:10.1111/josp.12269 · Cited by 56
“Similarly, Irene Blair et al. (2013) measured primary care clinicians’ implicit bias, finding that two-thirds displayed a bias favoring Whites more than Blacks and Latinos.”
BackgroundColor-Blindness and Commonality
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Saguy, T. (2015) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764215580591 · Cited by 51
“Overall, physicians higher in implicit bias are less patient-centered in their care of Black patients (Blair et al., 2013; Cooper et al., 2012).”
BackgroundYetman, H. E., Cox, N., Adler, S. R., Hall, K. T., & Stone, V. E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.788230 · Cited by 52
Gonzalez, C. M., Deno, M. L., Kintzer, E., Marantz, P., Lypson, M., & McKee, M. (2019) · Journal of general internal medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-019-04891-1 · Cited by 42
Stone, J., Moskowitz, G. B., Zestcott, C. A., & Wolsiefer, K. J. (2019) · Stigma and Health · doi:10.1037/sah0000179 · Cited by 52
“A uthor M anuscript A uthor M anuscript example, studies find that healthcare providers have negative implicit associations for Hispanics (Blair et al., 2013; Bean et al., 2013), African Americans (Blair et al., 2013; Green et al., 2007; Hagiwara et al., 2013; Moskowitz et al., 2012), Lesbians and…”
BackgroundInfluentialAccess to common laparoscopic general surgical procedures: do racial disparities exist?
Wood, K. L., Haider, S. F., Bui, A. H., & Leitman, I. M. (2019) · Surgical Endoscopy · doi:10.1007/s00464-019-06912-w · Cited by 50
Davis, D. L. F., Tran-Taylor, D., Imbert, E., Wong, J. O., & Chou, C. L. (2021) · Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development · doi:10.1177/23821205211000352 · Cited by 48
Lovelace, T. S., Robertson, R. E., & Tamayo, S. (2018) · Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/215416471805300102 · Cited by 48
“…of races experience these difficulties, it is possible that due to forms of racial discrimination ranging from overt racism to implicit biases (Blair et al., 2013), African American families may experience a heightened degree of diffi-culty in getting timely diagnoses (Mandell, et al., 2002;…”
Are You Really the Doctor? Physician Experiences with Gendered Microaggressions from Patients
Ahmad, S., Ahmad, T. R., Balasubramanian, V., Facente, S. N., Kin, C., & Girod, S. C. (2021) · Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1089/jwh.2021.0169 · Cited by 52
“Additionally, implicit bias in physicians is common 45 and is correlated with lower quality patient care, 4 lower patient trust, 46–49 and inferior communication.”
Racial Disparities in Cardiovascular Care: A Review of Culprits and Potential Solutions
Capers, Q., & Sharalaya, Z. (2014) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-014-0021-7 · Cited by 46
“Further analyzing physician implicit physician bias was a study by Blair and colleagues [30] investigating the relationship between patient’s perception of care and physician implicit bias.”
BackgroundRacial and Ethnic Disparities in Bronchiolitis Management in Free-Standing Children’s Hospitals
Honcoop, A. C., Poitevien, P., Kerns, E. K., Alverson, B., & McCulloh, R. (2021) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/acem.14274 · Cited by 42
Making the invisible visible: Implementing an implicit bias activity in nursing education
Gatewood, E., Broholm, C., Herman, J., & Yingling, C. T. (2019) · Journal of Professional Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.profnurs.2019.03.004 · Cited by 45
Physician and patient perceptions of cultural competency and medical compliance
Ohana, S., & Mash, R. J. (2015) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyv060 · Cited by 43
“[3] find in their research that black patients rated less than white patients, their satisfaction among patient-centered care from clinicians with greater implicit race bias.”
A new model of patient-centred care for general practitioners: results of an integrative review
Brickley, B., Sladdin, I., Williams, L. T., Morgan, M. A. J., Ross, A., Trigger, K., & Ball, L. (2019) · Family Practice · doi:10.1093/fampra/cmz063 · Cited by 46
Racial Bias and Its Impact on Children and Adolescents
Johnson, T. J. (2020) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2019.12.011 · Cited by 44
Individuation and implicit racial bias in genetic counseling communication
Lowe, C. L., Beach, M. C., & ROTER, D. L. (2019) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2019.10.016 · Cited by 41
“Additionally, previous studies have found similar levels of implicit bias against both Blacks and Hispanics using separate IATs to evaluate both Black:White and Hispanic:White preferences among health care providers [6] and community members [6,30].”
BackgroundEliacin, J., Matthias, M. S., Cunningham, B. A., & Burgess, D. J. (2020) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2020.03.017 · Cited by 46
Cormack, D., Harris, R. B., Stanley, J., Lacey, C. J., Jones, R., & Curtis, E. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201168 · Cited by 38
Disparities in Social Determinants of Health Amongst People with Disabilities
Friedman, C. (2021) · International Journal of Disability Development and Education · doi:10.1080/1034912x.2021.2004299 · Cited by 40
“People of colour commonly experience inequalities in healthcare in the United States as a result of racism (Blair et al., 2013; Goodman et al., 2017).”
BackgroundRacial Implicit Bias and Communication Among Physicians in a Simulated Environment
González, C. M., Ark, T. K., Fisher, M. R., Marantz, P. R., Burgess, D. J., Milan, F. B., Samuel, M. T., Lypson, M. L., Rodríguez, C. J., & Kalet, A. L. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.2181 · Cited by 41
Racial Disparities in Spine Surgery
Mo, K., Ikwuezunma, I. A., Mun, F., Ortiz-Babilonia, C. D., Wang, K. Y., Suresh, K. V., Uppal, A., Sethi, I., Mesfin, A., & Jain, A. (2022) · Clinical Spine Surgery A Spine Publication · doi:10.1097/bsd.0000000000001383 · Cited by 39
Gasoyan, H., Pfoh, E. R., Schulte, R., Sullivan, E., Le, P., & Rothberg, M. B. (2024) · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.15473 · Cited by 41
Applied Racial/Ethnic Healthcare Disparities Research Using Implicit Measures
Hagiwara, N., Dovidio, J. F., Stone, J., & Penner, L. A. (2020) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2020.38.supp.s68 · Cited by 41
“Blair and colleagues (Blair et al., 2013) also found that Black patients whose providers were higher in pro-White/anti-Black implicit prejudice on the IAT reported significantly lower levels of perceived patient-centered care, although they did not observe a comparable effect with Latinx (Hispanic)…”
BackgroundResultRacial and Ethnic Disparities in Surgical Outcomes after Postmastectomy Breast Reconstruction
Sarver, M. M., Rames, J. D., Ren, Y., Greenup, R. A., Shammas, R. L., Hwang, E. S., Hollenbeck, S. T., Hyslop, T., Butler, P. D., Fayanju, O. M., et al. (2022) · Journal of the American College of Surgeons · doi:10.1097/xcs.0000000000000143 · Cited by 37
Uppal, S., Chapman, C. H., Spencer, R. J., Jolly, S., Maturen, K. E., Rauh‐Hain, J. A., DelCarmen, M. G., & Rice, L. W. (2017) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000001819 · Cited by 37
“001 Intermediate 8,087 (50) 4,843 (49) 1,726 (54) 954 (46) 564 (58) High 3,997 (25) 2,053 (21) 927 (29) 792 (38) 225 (23) Year of diagnosis 2004–2006 4,951 (31) 3,121 (31) 947 (30) 573 (27) 310 (32) .”
Qi, A. C., Butler, A. M., & Maddox, K. E. J. (2019) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2018.05406 · Cited by 36
Metadata
- Authors
- Blair, I. V., Steiner, J. F., Fairclough, D. L., Hanratty, R., Price, D. W., Hirsh, H. K., Wright, L. A., Bronsert, M., Karimkhani, E., Magid, D. J., & Havranek, E. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Colorado Boulder (US)
- Kaiser Permanente (US)
- University of Colorado Denver (US)
- Denver Health Medical Center (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Annals of Family Medicine
- Publisher
- Annals of Family Medicine
- Published
- 2013-01-01
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 43-52
- ISSN
- 1544-1709 (ISSN-L)
- 1544-1717
- PMC
- PMC3596038
- OpenAlex
- W2137471755
- Cited by
- 409
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 7
- FWCI
- 36.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Annals of Family Medicine (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Kaiser Permanente
- University of Colorado Boulder
- University of Colorado Denver
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL088198, R01HL088198)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Patient-Provider Communication in Healthcare
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Cultural Competency in Health Care
- Keywords
- implicit bias, explicit bias, patient-centered care, patient perception of care, Black patients, Hispanic patients, clinician-patient relationship, health disparities, racial disparities in health care, provider communication, clinician trust
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Black or African American, Colorado, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Physician-Patient Relations, Models, Statistical, Patient Satisfaction, Patient-Centered Care, Health Care Surveys, Cultural Competency, Healthcare Disparities, Young Adult, Physicians, Primary Care, Racism
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