CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 280Barrier Structure and Function StudiesGastrointestinal motility and disordersCell Adhesion Molecules Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 44 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Interleukin-6 Modulation of Intestinal Epithelial Tight Junction Permeability Is Mediated by JNK Pathway Activation of Claudin-2 Gene

Open access
Al-Sadi, Rana, Ye, Dongmei, Boivin, Michel, Guo, Shuhong, Hashimi, Mariam, Ereifej, Lisa, Ma, Thomas Y.·2014·PLoS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0085345PMC PMC3963839
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Defective intestinal epithelial tight junction (TJ) barrier has been shown to be a pathogenic factor in the development of intestinal inflammation. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic, pro-inflammatory cytokine which plays an important role in promoting inflammatory response in the gut and in the systemic circulation. Despite its key role in mediating variety inflammatory response, the effect of IL-6 on intestinal epithelial barrier remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of IL-6 on intestinal epithelial TJ barrier and to delineate the intracellular mechanisms involved using in-vitro (filter-grown Caco-2 monolayers) and in-vivo model (mouse intestinal perfusion) systems. Our results indicated that IL-6 causes a site-selective increase in Caco-2 intestinal epithelia TJ permeability, causing an increase in flux of small-sized molecules having molecular radius <4 Å. The size-selective increase in Caco-2 TJ permeability was regulated by protein-specific increase in claudin-2 expression. The IL-6 increase in TJ permeability required activation of JNK signaling cascade. The JNK pathway activation of AP-1 resulted in AP-1 binding to its binding sequence on the claudin-2 promoter region, leading to promoter activation and subsequent increase in claudin-2 gene transcription and protein synthesis and TJ permeability. Our in-vivo mouse perfusion showed that IL-6 modulation of mouse intestinal permeability was also mediated by AP-1 dependent increase in claudin-2 expression. In conclusion, our studies show for the first time that the IL-6 modulation of intestinal TJ permeability was regulated by JNK activation of AP-1 and AP-1 activation of claudin-2 gene.

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0085345

Cites

44 of 44 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Figures

Figure 1 Effect of IL-6 on trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TER) in Caco-2 intestinal epithelial monolayers. (A) IL-6 caused a dose-dependent decrease in TER over 48-h experimental period (n = 4). *p<0.001 vs. control. (B) IL-6 (10 ng/ml) caused a time-dependant decrease in Caco-2 TER (n = 4). (C) Membrane specificity of IL-6 effect on Caco-2 epithelial resistance. IL-6 (10 ng/ml) was added to either apical, basolateral, or combined apical and basolateral compartments (n = 4). *, p<0.05 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 addition to apical compartment alone.
Figure 1 Effect of IL-6 on trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TER) in Caco-2 intestinal epithelial monolayers. (A) IL-6 caused a dose-dependent decrease in TER over 48-h experimental period (n = 4). *p<0.001 vs. control. (B) IL-6 (10 ng/ml) caused a time-dependant decrease in Caco-2 TER (n = 4). (C) Membrane specificity of IL-6 effect on Caco-2 epithelial resistance. IL-6 (10 ng/ml) was added to either apical, basolateral, or combined apical and basolateral compartments (n = 4). *, p<0.05 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 addition to apical compartment alone.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Effect of IL-6 on Caco-2 tight junction proteins expression. (A) IL-6 caused a time-dependent increase in claudin-2 protein expression but not claudins 3, 5, and 8 as assessed by Western Blot analysis. (B) Graph of claudin-2 protein expression vs. relative decrease in transepithelial resistance following IL-6 treatment (relative correlation coefficient, r = 0.94). (C) IL-6 treatment (10 ng/ml) of Caco-2 monolayers over 48 h experimental period induced a significant increase in mucosal-to-serosal urea flux (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control.
Figure 2 Effect of IL-6 on Caco-2 tight junction proteins expression. (A) IL-6 caused a time-dependent increase in claudin-2 protein expression but not claudins 3, 5, and 8 as assessed by Western Blot analysis. (B) Graph of claudin-2 protein expression vs. relative decrease in transepithelial resistance following IL-6 treatment (relative correlation coefficient, r = 0.94). (C) IL-6 treatment (10 ng/ml) of Caco-2 monolayers over 48 h experimental period induced a significant increase in mucosal-to-serosal urea flux (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Effect of siRNA- induced knock-down of claudin-2 on Caco-2 intestinal epithelial permeability. (A) SiRNA claudin-2 transfection resulted in a near-complete depletion of claudin-2 expression as assessed by Western blot analysis (4 days post-transfection). (B) IL-6 caused an increase in claudin-2 protein expression. Knocking-down claudin-2 by siRNA transfection prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 expression as assessed by Western Blot analysis. (C) siRNA induced knock down of claudin-2 prevented the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER. (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (D) Claudin-2 depletion prevented the IL-6 induced increase in urea flux across Caco-2 monolayers. (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.
Figure 3 Effect of siRNA- induced knock-down of claudin-2 on Caco-2 intestinal epithelial permeability. (A) SiRNA claudin-2 transfection resulted in a near-complete depletion of claudin-2 expression as assessed by Western blot analysis (4 days post-transfection). (B) IL-6 caused an increase in claudin-2 protein expression. Knocking-down claudin-2 by siRNA transfection prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 expression as assessed by Western Blot analysis. (C) siRNA induced knock down of claudin-2 prevented the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER. (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (D) Claudin-2 depletion prevented the IL-6 induced increase in urea flux across Caco-2 monolayers. (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Effect of IL-6 on activation of the p38 kinase and JNK phosphorylation. (A) IL-6 treatment of Caco-2 monolayers did not affect the phosphorylation of p38 kinase as assessed by Western Blot of phosph-p38 kinase. (B) IL-6 treatment caused a time-dependent increase in JNK phosphorylation in Caco-2 monolayers.
Figure 4 Effect of IL-6 on activation of the p38 kinase and JNK phosphorylation. (A) IL-6 treatment of Caco-2 monolayers did not affect the phosphorylation of p38 kinase as assessed by Western Blot of phosph-p38 kinase. (B) IL-6 treatment caused a time-dependent increase in JNK phosphorylation in Caco-2 monolayers.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Effect of inhibition of JNK pathway on IL-6 induced increase in Caco-2 TJ permeability. (A) Pre-treatment with JNK inhibitor SP-600125 (25 µM) prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 protein expression. (B) SP-600125 pre-treatment prevented the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (C) SP-600125 pre-treatment prevented the IL-6 induced increase in urea flux in filter-grown Caco-2 monolayers. (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.
Figure 5 Effect of inhibition of JNK pathway on IL-6 induced increase in Caco-2 TJ permeability. (A) Pre-treatment with JNK inhibitor SP-600125 (25 µM) prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 protein expression. (B) SP-600125 pre-treatment prevented the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (C) SP-600125 pre-treatment prevented the IL-6 induced increase in urea flux in filter-grown Caco-2 monolayers. (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 6 Effect of siRNA- induced knock-down of JNK on Caco-2 intestinal epithelial permeability. (A) JNK siRNA transfection resulted in a near-complete depletion of JNK expression. (B) SiRNA-induced knock down of JNK prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 expression. (C) SiRNA induced knock down of JNK abolished the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (D) JNK siRNA transfection prevented the IL-6 increase in urea flux in Caco-2 monolayers (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.
Figure 6 Effect of siRNA- induced knock-down of JNK on Caco-2 intestinal epithelial permeability. (A) JNK siRNA transfection resulted in a near-complete depletion of JNK expression. (B) SiRNA-induced knock down of JNK prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 expression. (C) SiRNA induced knock down of JNK abolished the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (D) JNK siRNA transfection prevented the IL-6 increase in urea flux in Caco-2 monolayers (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 7 Effect of mRNA transcription inhibitor on IL-6 induced increase in Caco-2 TJ permeability. (A) IL-6 caused a time-dependent increase in claudin-2 mRNA expression as assessed by real-time PCR (n = 8). *, p<0.001 vs. control. (B) mRNA polymerase inhibitor actinomycin-D (100 µg/ml) prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 protein expression as assessed by Western Blot analysis. (C) Pre-treatment with actinomycin-D prevented the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<0.001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (D) Pre-treatment with actinomycin-D also prevented the IL-6 induced increase in urea flux in Caco-2 monolayers (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<0.001 vs. IL-6 treatment.
Figure 7 Effect of mRNA transcription inhibitor on IL-6 induced increase in Caco-2 TJ permeability. (A) IL-6 caused a time-dependent increase in claudin-2 mRNA expression as assessed by real-time PCR (n = 8). *, p<0.001 vs. control. (B) mRNA polymerase inhibitor actinomycin-D (100 µg/ml) prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 protein expression as assessed by Western Blot analysis. (C) Pre-treatment with actinomycin-D prevented the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<0.001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (D) Pre-treatment with actinomycin-D also prevented the IL-6 induced increase in urea flux in Caco-2 monolayers (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<0.001 vs. IL-6 treatment.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 8 Determination of claudin-2 minimal promoter region. (A) Schematic diagram showing claudin-2 gene mapped to chromosome Xq22.3-q23 region, and organized into 2 exons. The transcription and translation start sites were located in exon 2. The exon 1 and exon 2 were separated by 7.5 kb intron. The 5′ untranslated region was located in exon 1. (B) Schematic diagram showing the deletion constructs of claudin-2 gene that were generated. (C) Transfection of FL and deletion constructs of claudin-2 promoter in Caco-2 monolayers. Transfection of full length (pCLDN2 A) promoter region caused a 10-fold increase in the luciferase activity compared to the pGL3 basic vector alone when transfected into the Caco-2 cells (n = 8). The deletion construct −1170 (pCLDN2 C) exhibited the maximal promoter activity (n = 8). *, p<0.05 vs. pGL3; **, p<0.001 vs. full length promoter region.
Figure 8 Determination of claudin-2 minimal promoter region. (A) Schematic diagram showing claudin-2 gene mapped to chromosome Xq22.3-q23 region, and organized into 2 exons. The transcription and translation start sites were located in exon 2. The exon 1 and exon 2 were separated by 7.5 kb intron. The 5′ untranslated region was located in exon 1. (B) Schematic diagram showing the deletion constructs of claudin-2 gene that were generated. (C) Transfection of FL and deletion constructs of claudin-2 promoter in Caco-2 monolayers. Transfection of full length (pCLDN2 A) promoter region caused a 10-fold increase in the luciferase activity compared to the pGL3 basic vector alone when transfected into the Caco-2 cells (n = 8). The deletion construct −1170 (pCLDN2 C) exhibited the maximal promoter activity (n = 8). *, p<0.05 vs. pGL3; **, p<0.001 vs. full length promoter region.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 9 Effect of siRNA induced AP-1 knock-down on IL-6 increase in claudin-2 promoter activity and Caco-2 TJ permeability. (A) IL-6 caused a significant increase in claudin-2 promoter activity as assessed by luciferase assay (n = 8). *, p<0.001 vs. control. (B) IL-6 caused a time-dependent increase in c-JUN DNA binding to AP-1 standard DNA site as assayed by ELISA-based DNA binding assay (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control. (C) siRNA induced knock-down of AP-1 prevented the IL-6 increase in claudin-2 mRNA expression (n = 8). *, p<0.0001 vs. control; **, p<0.0001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (D) AP-1 depletion by siRNA transfection prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 promoter activity (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<0.001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (E) siRNA induced knock down of AP-1 abolished the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (F) Knocking-down AP-1 by siRNA transfection prevented the IL-6 increase in urea flux in Caco-2 monolayers (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.
Figure 9 Effect of siRNA induced AP-1 knock-down on IL-6 increase in claudin-2 promoter activity and Caco-2 TJ permeability. (A) IL-6 caused a significant increase in claudin-2 promoter activity as assessed by luciferase assay (n = 8). *, p<0.001 vs. control. (B) IL-6 caused a time-dependent increase in c-JUN DNA binding to AP-1 standard DNA site as assayed by ELISA-based DNA binding assay (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control. (C) siRNA induced knock-down of AP-1 prevented the IL-6 increase in claudin-2 mRNA expression (n = 8). *, p<0.0001 vs. control; **, p<0.0001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (D) AP-1 depletion by siRNA transfection prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 promoter activity (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<0.001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (E) siRNA induced knock down of AP-1 abolished the IL-6 induced drop in Caco-2 TER (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (F) Knocking-down AP-1 by siRNA transfection prevented the IL-6 increase in urea flux in Caco-2 monolayers (n = 4). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 10 Identification of DNA binding sequence responsible for IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 promoter activity. (A) Schematic diagram showing 8 potential AP-1 binding sites within the claudin-2 promoter region. Four binding sites were located outside the minimal promoter region (trans-AP-1) and four sites were within the minimal promoter region (cis-AP-1). (B) IL-6 treatment caused an increase in promoter activity in the FL promoter construct (pCLDN2 A) (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (C) IL-6 caused a similar increase in promoter activity in the deletion construct lacking the trans-AP-1 sites (pCLDN2 C) (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. The site-directed mutagenesis of three up-stream cis-AP-1 binding sequences (E, F, G) did not affect the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 promoter activity (D), (E), (F) (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. The mutation of the down-stream cis-AP-1 binding (sequence H) prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 promoter activity (n = 6) (G).
Figure 10 Identification of DNA binding sequence responsible for IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 promoter activity. (A) Schematic diagram showing 8 potential AP-1 binding sites within the claudin-2 promoter region. Four binding sites were located outside the minimal promoter region (trans-AP-1) and four sites were within the minimal promoter region (cis-AP-1). (B) IL-6 treatment caused an increase in promoter activity in the FL promoter construct (pCLDN2 A) (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. (C) IL-6 caused a similar increase in promoter activity in the deletion construct lacking the trans-AP-1 sites (pCLDN2 C) (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. The site-directed mutagenesis of three up-stream cis-AP-1 binding sequences (E, F, G) did not affect the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 promoter activity (D), (E), (F) (n = 6). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment. The mutation of the down-stream cis-AP-1 binding (sequence H) prevented the IL-6 induced increase in claudin-2 promoter activity (n = 6) (G).CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 11 Effect of IL-6 on mouse small intestinal permeability and claudin-2 expression in-vivo. (A) Intraperitoneal treatment of IL-6 (5 µg) did not affect the mucosal-to-serosal flux of dextran 10K in mouse intestinal tissues (n = 5). (B) IL-6 treatment caused a drop in mouse intestinal TER as measured in Ussing chambers. *, p<0.001 vs. control. (C) IL-6 caused an increase in mouse intestinal tissue claudin-2 expression as assessed by Western Blot analysis. (D) IL-6 treatment resulted in an increase in claudin-2 mRNA levels in mouse intestinal tissue (n = 5). *, p<0.0001 vs. control. (E) Claudin-2 siRNA transfection in-vivo prevented the IL-6 induced increase in mouse intestinal claudin-2 protein expression as assessed by Western blot analysis. (F) Claudin-2 siRNA transfection in-vivo prevented the IL-6 induced drop in mouse intestinal TER as measured in Ussing chambers (n = 5). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.
Figure 11 Effect of IL-6 on mouse small intestinal permeability and claudin-2 expression in-vivo. (A) Intraperitoneal treatment of IL-6 (5 µg) did not affect the mucosal-to-serosal flux of dextran 10K in mouse intestinal tissues (n = 5). (B) IL-6 treatment caused a drop in mouse intestinal TER as measured in Ussing chambers. *, p<0.001 vs. control. (C) IL-6 caused an increase in mouse intestinal tissue claudin-2 expression as assessed by Western Blot analysis. (D) IL-6 treatment resulted in an increase in claudin-2 mRNA levels in mouse intestinal tissue (n = 5). *, p<0.0001 vs. control. (E) Claudin-2 siRNA transfection in-vivo prevented the IL-6 induced increase in mouse intestinal claudin-2 protein expression as assessed by Western blot analysis. (F) Claudin-2 siRNA transfection in-vivo prevented the IL-6 induced drop in mouse intestinal TER as measured in Ussing chambers (n = 5). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.CC0 · PubMed Central
Figure 12 Effect of siRNA induced knock-down of intestinal tissue AP-1 on IL-6 induced drop in intestinal tissue electrical resistance. (A) siRNA induced knock-down of AP-1 in-vivo prevented the IL-6 induced increase in mouse intestinal claudin-2 protein expression as assessed by Western blot analysis. B) AP-1 siRNA transfection in-vivo prevented the IL-6 induced drop in mouse intestinal TER as measured in Ussing chambers (n = 5). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.
Figure 12 Effect of siRNA induced knock-down of intestinal tissue AP-1 on IL-6 induced drop in intestinal tissue electrical resistance. (A) siRNA induced knock-down of AP-1 in-vivo prevented the IL-6 induced increase in mouse intestinal claudin-2 protein expression as assessed by Western blot analysis. B) AP-1 siRNA transfection in-vivo prevented the IL-6 induced drop in mouse intestinal TER as measured in Ussing chambers (n = 5). *, p<0.001 vs. control; **, p<001 vs. IL-6 treatment.CC0 · PubMed Central

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Show all 43 references

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Items 101–200 of 280

Related

See all

Metadata

Authors
Al-Sadi, R., Ye, D., Boivin, M., Guo, S., Hashimi, M., Ereifej, L., & Ma, T. Y.
Affiliations
University of New Mexico (US)
Corresponding author
  • Ye, Dongmei
  • Boivin, Michel
  • Guo, Shuhong
  • Hashimi, Mariam
  • Ereifej, Lisa
  • Ma, Thomas Y.
ORCID
Venue
PLoS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2014-03-24
Volume
9
Issue
3
Pages
e85345
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0085345
PMC
PMC3963839
OpenAlex
W2126506597
Cited by
280
References
43
Citations by year
2026: 22 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 12
FWCI
8.48
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, public-domain)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
  • National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R0 1-DK-81429-03, R01DK081429, RO 1-DK-81429)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Barrier Structure and Function Studies
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Immunology and Allergy › Cell Adhesion Molecules Research
Keywords
interleukin-6, claudin-2, JNK signaling, AP-1 transcription factor, intestinal epithelial barrier, intestinal inflammation, Caco-2 cell monolayers, intestinal permeability, size-selective permeability
MeSH terms
Animals, Humans, Intestinal Mucosa, Permeability, Transcriptional Activation, Interleukin-6, Transcription Factor AP-1, Caco-2 Cells, Tight Junctions, MAP Kinase Signaling System, Intracellular Space, JNK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases, Mice, Claudin-2

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review