Underperformance of African protected area networks and the case for new conservation models: insights from Zambia
Open accessAbstract
Many African protected areas (PAs) are not functioning effectively. We reviewed the performance of Zambia's PA network and provide insights into how their effectiveness might be improved. Zambia's PAs are under-performing in ecological, economic and social terms. Reasons include: a) rapidly expanding human populations, poverty and open-access systems in Game Management Areas (GMAs) resulting in widespread bushmeat poaching and habitat encroachment; b) underfunding of the Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) resulting in inadequate law enforcement; c) reliance of ZAWA on extracting revenues from GMAs to cover operational costs which has prevented proper devolution of user-rights over wildlife to communities; d) on-going marginalization of communities from legal benefits from wildlife; e) under-development of the photo-tourism industry with the effect that earnings are limited to a fraction of the PA network; f) unfavourable terms and corruption which discourage good practice and adequate investment by hunting operators in GMAs; g) blurred responsibilities regarding anti-poaching in GMAs resulting in under-investment by all stakeholders. The combined effect of these challenges has been a major reduction in wildlife densities in most PAs and the loss of habitat in GMAs. Wildlife fares better in areas with investment from the private and/or NGO sector and where human settlement is absent. There is a need for: elevated government funding for ZAWA; greater international donor investment in protected area management; a shift in the role of ZAWA such that they focus primarily on national parks while facilitating the development of wildlife-based land uses by other stakeholders elsewhere; and new models for the functioning of GMAs based on joint-ventures between communities and the private and/or NGO sector. Such joint-ventures should provide defined communities with ownership of land, user-rights over wildlife and aim to attract long-term private/donor investment. These recommendations are relevant for many of the under-funded PAs occurring in other African countries.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
State-protected conservation areas are unlikely to be sufficient to protect viable populations of large carnivores.
“It is increasingly recognised that state-protected conservation areas are unlikely to be sufficient to protect viable populations of large carnivores”
From The impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe (2016) · cites this paper as Lindsey et al., 2014
The Results and Discussion section on ecological indicators reports that Zambian protected areas have depressed prey populations and infers that predator populations are well below historic densities. The Introduction also describes the protected-area network as underperforming. These passages support concern about state-protected areas, but they do not assess whether those areas can protect viable populations of large carnivores generally. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMany protected areas have failed to sufficiently protect large mammals from anthropogenic threats.
“Many protected areas have failed to sufficiently protect large mammals from anthropogenic threats (Craigie et al., 2010; Lindsey et al., 2014)”
From The impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe (2016) · cites this paper as Lindsey et al., 2014
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Large mammal population declines in Africa’s protected areas
Craigie, I. D., Baillie, J. E. M., Balmford, A., Carbone, C., Collen, B., Green, R. E., & Hutton, J. M. (2010) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.06.007 · Cited by 685 · see citing works
Biomass and production of large African herbivores in relation to rainfall and primary production
Coe, M. J., Cumming, D. H. M., & Phillipson, J. (1976) · Oecologia · doi:10.1007/bf00345312 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
The Kruger experience: ecology and management of Savanna heterogeneity
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-5291 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Economic and conservation significance of the trophy hunting industry in sub-Saharan Africa
Lindsey, P. A., Roulet, P.-A., & Romañach, S. S. (2006) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.09.005 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Self-citationThe bushmeat trade in African savannas: Impacts, drivers, and possible solutions
Lindsey, P. A., Balme, G. A., Becker, M. S., Begg, C. M., Bento, C., Bocchino, C., Dickman, A., Diggle, R. W., Eves, H. E., Henschel, P., et al. (2013) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.12.020 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Self-citationConserving large carnivores: dollars and fence
Packer, C., Loveridge, A. J., Canney, S. M., Caro, T., Garnett, S. T., Pfeifer, M., Zander, K. K., Swanson, A., MacNulty, D. R., Balme, G. A., et al. (2013) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.12091 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Self-citationRainfall, soil nutrient status and biomass of large African savanna mammals
EAST, R. (1984) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1984.tb00700.x · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Bushmeat Supply and Consumption in a Tropical Logging Concession in Northern Congo
Poulsen, J. R., Clark, C. J., Mavah, G. A., & Elkan, P. W. (2009) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01251.x · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Community management of natural resources in Africa: impacts, experiences and future directions.
Roe, D., Sandbrook, C. G., & Nelson, F. (2009) · International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) eBooks · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Snyman, S. (2012) · Journal of Sustainable Tourism · doi:10.1080/09669582.2012.657202 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Evaluating wire-snare poaching trends and the impacts of by-catch on elephants and large carnivores
Becker, M. S., McRobb, R., Watson, F. G. R., Dröge, E., Kanyembo, B., Murdoch, J. D., & Kakumbi, C. (2012) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.08.017 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Self-citationJones, A., Breuning‐Madsen, H., Brossard, M., et al. (2012) · Joint Research Centre (European Commission) · doi:10.2788/52319 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Ingram, J. C., Wilkie, D. S., Clements, T., McNab, R. B., Nelson, F., Baur, E. H., Sachedina, H. T., Peterson, D. D., & Foley, C. (2014) · Ecosystem Services · doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2013.12.003 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Teer, J. G., & Bothma, J. D. P. (1990) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.2307/3809059 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Community based natural resource management in Zimbabwe: the experience of CAMPFIRE
Taylor, R. (2009) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-009-9612-8 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Protected Areas: Mixed Success in Conserving East Africa’s Evergreen Forests
Pfeifer, M., Burgess, N. D., Swetnam, R. D., Platts, P. J., Willcock, S., & Marchant, R. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039337 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Recreational Hunting, Conservation and Rural Livelihoods
(2009) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444303179 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Lindsey, P. A., Balme, G. A., Booth, V. R., et al. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029332 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citationEcological and financial impacts of illegal bushmeat trade in Zimbabwe
Lindsey, P. A., Romañach, S. S., Tambling, C. J., Chartier, K., & Groom, R. (2011) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s0030605310000153 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationParks in Transition: Biodiversity, Development and the Bottom Line
(2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781849772129-20 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Watson, F. G. R., Becker, M. S., Milanzi, J., & Nyirenda, M. A. (2014) · Regional Environmental Change · doi:10.1007/s10113-014-0629-5 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Self-citationConsequences of different forms of conservation for large mammals in Tanzania: preliminary analyses
M, T., Pelkey, N. W., Borner, M., et al. (1998) · African Journal of Ecology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.00147.x · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Ecological, Social and Financial Issues Related to Fencing as a Conservation Tool in Africa
Lindsey, P. A., Masterson, C. L., Beck, A. L., & Romañach, S. S. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0902-1_12 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationLewis, D., Bell, S., Fay, J. P., et al. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1011538108 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Lindsey, P. A., Balme, G. A., Funston, P. J., Henschel, P., Hunter, L., Madzikanda, H., Midlane, N., & Nyirenda, V. R. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073808 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationSomers, M. J., & Hayward, M. W. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0902-1 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Protected areas in today's world: their values and benefits for the welfare of the planet.
Janishevski, L., Noonan-Mooney, K., Gidda, S. B., et al. (2008) · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Trophy hunting and lion conservation: a question of governance?
Nelson, F., Lindsey, P. A., & Balme, G. A. (2013) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s003060531200035x · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationEstimating past and future male loss in three Zambian lion populations
Becker, M. S., Watson, F. G. R., Dröge, E., Leigh, K. A., Carlson, R. S., & Carlson, A. A. (2012) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.1002/jwmg.446 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationHousehold Consumption and Natural Resource Management around National Parks in Zambia
Bandyopadhyay, S., & Tembo, G. (2010) · Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research · doi:10.1080/19390450903350838 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Risky business: an uncertain future for biodiversity conservation finance through REDD+
Phelps, J., Webb, E. L., & Koh, L. P. (2010) · Conservation Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2010.00155.x · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Contractual National Parks and the Makuleke Community
Reid, H. (2001) · Human Ecology · doi:10.1023/a:1011072213331 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Social Variation of Lions in a Male-Depopulated Area in Zambia
Yamazaki, K. (1996) · Journal of Wildlife Management · doi:10.2307/3802066 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
CBNRM in Namibia: Growth, Trends, Lessons and Constraints
Jones, B., & Weaver, L. C. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781849771283-24 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Wildlife Conservation in Zambia: Impacts on Rural Household Welfare
Richardson, R. B., Fernandez, A., Tschirley, D., & Tembo, G. (2011) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.09.019 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The Influence of Corruption on the Conduct of Recreational Hunting
Leader‐Williams, N., Baldus, R. D., & Smith, R. J. (2009) · doi:10.1002/9781444303179.ch18 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Patterns of human wildlife conflicts in Zambia, causes, consequences and management responses
Chomba, C. (2012) · Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment · doi:10.5897/jene12.029 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Private Wildlife Conservation in Zimbabwe
Wels, H. (2003) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004491755 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Lindsey, P. A., Barnes, J., Nyirenda, V., Pumfrett, B., Tambling, C. J., Taylor, W. A., & Rolfes, M. T. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081761 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationAn analysis of tourism contribution to economic growth in SADC countries
Makochekanwa, A. (2013) · University of Zimbabwe Institutional Repository (University of Zimbabwe) · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Conservative Philanthropists, Royalty and Business Elites in Nature Conservation in Southern Africa
Spierenburg, M. J., & Wels, H. (2010) · Antipode · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00767.x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Private Wildlife Conservation in Zimbabwe: Joint Ventures and Reciprocity
Wels, H. (2003) · Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The current elephant poaching trend
Douglas‐Hamilton, I. (2009) · Pachyderm · doi:10.69649/pachyderm.v45i.188 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Collaborative governance and benefit sharing in Liuwa Plain National Park, western Zambia
Nyirenda, V. R., & Nkhata, B. A. (2013) · PARKS · doi:10.2305/iucn.ch.2013.parks-19-1.vrn.en · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationPerformance of Parks in a Century of Change
(2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781849772129-15 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Wildlife conservation in Zambia and the Landsafe Customary Commons
Manning, I. (2011) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The Impacts of Wildlife Conservation Policies on Rural Household Welfare in ZambiaPreprint
Fernandez, A., Richardson, R. B., Tschirley, D., et al. (2009) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.22004/ag.econ.53453 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Manning, I. (2012) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- [22]Whyte I, van Aarde R, Pimm S (2003) Kruger’s elephant population: Its size and consequences for ecosystem heterogeneity. In: Du Toit J, Rogers K, Biggs H, editors. The Kruger experience: ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Washington DC: Island Press. 332–348.
- [33]Manning I (2011) Wildlife conservation in Zambia and the landsafe customary commons. Pretoria: University of Pretoria, PhD thesis.
- [41]Lindsey P, Midlane N, Sayer E, van der Westhuizen H (2013) Kafue National Park resource protection strategy review. New York: Panthera/Frankfurt Zoological Society.
- [42]Lindsey P, Balme G, Funston P, Henschel P, Hunter L, et al (2013) The trophy hunting of African lions: Scale, current management practices and factors undermining sustainability. Plos One 8(9): e73808. 24058491 PMC3776777
- [59]Packer C, Canney S, Loveridge A, Garnett S, Zander K, et al (2013) Effective conservation of large carnivores. Ecological Letters 16: 635– 641.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Collapse of the world’s largest herbivores
Ripple, W. J., Newsome, T. M., Wolf, C., Dirzo, R., Everatt, K. T., Galetti, M., Hayward, M. W., Kerley, G. I. H., Levi, T., Lindsey, P. A., et al. (2015) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.1400103 · Cited by 1,229 · see citing works
Self-citationThe impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe
Williams, S. T., Williams, K. S., Joubert, C. J., & Hill, R. A. (2016) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.1537 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Many protected areas have failed to sufficiently protect large mammals from anthropogenic threats (Craigie et al., 2010; Lindsey et al., 2014), and the persistence of national parks alone may not be sufficient to safeguard even species that are relatively abundant in protected areas (Child, 2009a).”
Background
- Authors
- Lindsey, P. A., Nyirenda, V. R., Barnes, J. I., Becker, M. S., McRobb, R., Tambling, C. J., Taylor, W. A., Watson, F. G., & t’Sas-Rolfes, M.
- Affiliations
- Panthera Corporation (US)
- Montana State University (US)
- Nelson Mandela University (ZA)
- University of Pretoria (ZA)
- California State University, Monterey Bay (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lindsey, Peter A.
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2014-05-21
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- e94109
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4029602
- OpenAlex
- W2060451000
- Cited by
- 161
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 10.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Commons - CSUMB (California State University, Monterey Bay) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Nelson Mandela University Research Repository (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Socioeconomics of Resources and Conservation
- Keywords
- protected area effectiveness, conservation models, game management areas, poaching, anti-poaching, community-based conservation, wildlife tourism, conservation funding, corruption, habitat encroachment, private investment, donor funding, national parks, Zambia
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animals, Wild, Conservation of Natural Resources, Crime, Financing, Government, Humans, Population Dynamics, Social Change, Zambia, Ecosystem
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
