Long chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids exert opposing effects on viability and function of GLP-1-producing cells: Mechanisms of lipotoxicity
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM: Fatty acids acutely stimulate GLP-1 secretion from L-cells in vivo. However, a high fat diet has been shown to reduce the density of L-cells in the mouse intestine and a positive correlation has been indicated between L-cell number and GLP-1 secretion. Thus, the mechanism of fatty acid-stimulated GLP-1 secretion, potential effects of long-term exposure to elevated levels of different fatty acid species, and underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. In the present study, we sought to determine how long-term exposure to saturated (16:0) and unsaturated (18:1) fatty acids, by direct effects on GLP-1-producing cells, alter function and viability, and the underlying mechanisms. METHODS: GLP-1-secreting GLUTag cells were cultured in the presence/absence of saturated (16:0) and unsaturated (18:1) fatty acids (0.125 mM for 48 h, followed by analyses of viability and apoptosis, as well as involvement of fatty acid oxidation, free fatty acid receptors (FFAR1) and ceramide synthesis. In addition, effects on the expression of proglucagon, prohormone convertase 1/3 (PC1/3), free fatty acid receptors (FFAR1, FFAR3), sodium glucose co-transporter (SGLT) and subsequent secretory response were determined. RESULTS: Saturated (16:0) and unsaturated (18:1) fatty acids exerted opposing effects on the induction of apoptosis (1.4-fold increase in DNA fragmentation by palmitate and a 0.5-fold reduction by oleate; p<0.01). Palmitate-induced apoptosis was associated with increased ceramide content and co-incubation with Fumonisin B1 abolished this lipo apoptosis. Oleate, on the other hand, reduced ceramide content, and-unlike palmitate-upregulated FFAR1 and FFAR3, evoking a 2-fold increase in FFAR1-mediated GLP-1 secretion following acute exposure to 0.125 mmol/L palmitate; (p<0.05). CONCLUSION/INTERPRETATION: Saturated (16:0), but not unsaturated (18:1), fatty acids induce ceramide-mediated apoptosis of GLP-1-producing cells. Further, unsaturated fatty acids confer lipoprotection, enhancing viability and function of GLP-1-secreting cells. These data provide potential mechanistic insight contributing to reduced L-cell mass following a high fat diet and differential effects of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids on GLP-1 secretion in vivo.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Unsaturated fatty acids of olive oil increase glucagon-like-peptide-1 expression.
“In addition, the unsaturated fatty acids of olive oil have been shown to increase glucagon-like-peptide-1-(GLP1) expression [28].”
From Mediterranean Diet as an Antioxidant: The Impact on Metabolic Health and Overall Wellbeing (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
PROTEIN MEASUREMENT WITH THE FOLIN PHENOL REAGENT
Lowry, O. H., Rosebrough, N., Farr, A. L., & Randall, R. (1951) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1016/s0021-9258(19)52451-6 · Cited by 315,771 · see citing works
Triglyceride accumulation protects against fatty acid-induced lipotoxicity
Listenberger, L. L., Han, X., Lewis, S. E., Cases, S., Farese, R. V., Ory, D. S., & Schaffer, J. E. (2003) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0630588100 · Cited by 2,075 · see citing works
Lipotoxicity in the Pathogenesis of Obesity-Dependent NIDDM: Genetic and Clinical Implications
Unger, R. H. (1995) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diab.44.8.863 · Cited by 1,100 · see citing works
Everard, A., Lazarevic, V., Derrien, M., Girard, M., Muccioli, G. G., Neyrinck, A. M., Possemiers, S., Van Holle, A., François, P., de Vos, W. M., et al. (2011) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db11-0227 · Cited by 1,076 · see citing works
Kieffer, T. J., & Habener, J. F. (1999) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/edrv.20.6.0385 · Cited by 1,056 · see citing works
Edfalk, S., Steneberg, P., & Edlund, H. (2008) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db08-0307 · Cited by 587 · see citing works
Muscelli, E., Mari, A., Casolaro, A., Camastra, S., Seghieri, G., Gastaldelli, A., Holst, J. J., & Ferrannini, E. (2008) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db07-1315 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Microbial Modulation of Energy Availability in the Colon Regulates Intestinal Transit
Wichmann, A., Allahyar, A., Greiner, T. U., Plovier, H., Östergren‐Lundén, G., Larsson, T. P., Drucker, D. J., Delzenne, N. M., Cani, P. D., & Bäckhed, F. (2013) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2013.09.012 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Drucker, D. J., Jin, T., Asa, S. L., Young, T. A., & Brubaker, P. L. (1994) · Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/mend.8.12.7535893 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Glucagon-like peptide 1(GLP-1) in biology and pathology
Meier, J. J., & Nauck, M. A. (2005) · Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews · doi:10.1002/dmrr.538 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Targeting VEGF-B as a novel treatment for insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes
Hagberg, C. E., Mehlem, A., Falkevall, A., Muhl, L., Fam, B. C., Ortsäter, H., Scotney, P. D., Nyqvist, D., Samén, E., Li, L., et al. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature11464 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Burcelin, R., Costa, A. D., Drucker, D. J., & Thorens, B. (2001) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diabetes.50.8.1720 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Rask, E., Olsson, T., Söderberg, S., Johnson, O., Seckl, J. R., Holst, J. J., & Åhrén, B. (2001) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.24.9.1640 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Thomsen, C., Storm, H., Holst, J. J., & Hermansen, K. (2003) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/77.3.605 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Incretin Hormone and Insulin Responses to OralVersusIntravenous Lipid Administration in Humans
Lindgren, O., Carr, R. D., Deacon, C. F., Holst, J. J., Pacini, G., Mari, A., & Åhrén, B. (2011) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2011-0266 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
BRUBAKER, P. L., Schloos, J., & Drucker, D. J. (1998) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endo.139.10.6228 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Generation of L Cells in Mouse and Human Small Intestine Organoids
Petersen, N., Reimann, F. M., Bartfeld, S., Farin, H. F., Ringnalda, F. C. A. S., Vries, R. G. J., van den Brink, S., Clevers, H. C., Gribble, F. M., & de Koning, E. J. P. (2013) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db13-0991 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Lee, Y. C., Asa, S. L., & Drucker, D. J. (1992) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1016/s0021-9258(19)50075-8 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Role of Fat Hydrolysis in Regulating Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion
Beglinger, S., Drewe, J., Schirra, J. J., Göke, B., D’Amato, M., & Beglinger, C. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2009-1062 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
High fat diet impairs the function of glucagon-like peptide-1 producing L-cells
Richards, P., Pais, R., Habib, A. M., Brighton, C. A., Yeo, G. S. H., Reimann, F. M., & Gribble, F. M. (2015) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2015.06.006 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Balks, H. J., Holst, J. J., Mühlen, A. V. Z., & Brabant, G. E. (1997) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jcem.82.3.3816 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Interaction between specific fatty acids, GLP-1 and insulin secretion in humans
Beysen, C., Karpe, F., Fielding, B. A., Clark, A., Lévy, J., & Frayn, K. N. (2002) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-002-0964-9 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Christensen, L. W., Kuhre, R. E., Janus, C., Svendsen, B., & Holst, J. J. (2015) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.12551 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Baggio, L. L., Kim, J., & Drucker, D. J. (2004) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diabetes.53.suppl_3.s205 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Activation of FFA1 mediates GLP-1 secretion in mice. Evidence for allosterism at FFA1
Xiong, Y., Swaminath, G., Cao, Q., Li, Y., Guo, Q., Salomonis, H., Lu, J. Y.-L., Houze, J. B., Dransfield, P. J., Wang, Y., et al. (2013) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2013.01.009 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Hu, W. M., Ross, J. S., Geng, T., Brice, S. E., & Cowart, L. A. (2011) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m110.186916 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Balks, H. J. (1997) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.82.3.786 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Ceramide-induced formation of ROS and ATP depletion trigger necrosis in lymphoid cells
Villena, J., Henríquez, M., Torres, V. A., Moraga, F., Díaz‐Elizondo, J., Arredondo, C., Chiong, M., Olea‐Azar, C., Stutzin, A., Lavandero, S., et al. (2007) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.12.017 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Iwai, K., Kondo, T., Watanabe, M., Yabu, T., Kitano, T., Taguchi, Y., Umehara, H., Takahashi, A., Uchiyama, T., & Okazaki, T. (2003) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m201867200 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Poreba, M., Dong, C. X., Li, S. K., Stahl, A., Miner, J. H., & Brubaker, P. L. (2012) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00116.2012 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Metformin protects against lipoapoptosis and enhances GLP-1 secretion from GLP-1-producing cells
Krizhanovskii, C., Patrone, C., Holst, J. J., Zhang, Q., & Sjöholm, Å. (2012) · Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.1007/s00535-012-0637-5 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationHayashi, H., Yamada, R., Das, S., Sato, T., Takahashi, A., Hiratsuka, M., & Hirasawa, N. (2014) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2014.02.012 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Krizhanovskii, C., Zhang, Q., Nyström, T., & Sjöholm, Å. (2014) · Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome · doi:10.1186/1758-5996-6-70 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationHalpern, K. B., Veprik, A., Rubins, N. E., Naaman, O., & WALKER, M. D. (2012) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m112.358887 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Glucocorticoids suppress GLP-1 secretion: possible contribution to their diabetogenic effects
Krizhanovskii, C., Fransson, L., Wolbert, P., & Ortsäter, H. (2015) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs20140719 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationMolecular mechanisms of lipoapoptosis and metformin protection in GLP-1 secreting cells
Krizhanovskii, C., Holst, J. J., Zhang, Q., & Sjöholm, Å. (2012) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.09.010 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationGlucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists: Beta-Cell Protection or Exhaustion?
van Raalte, D. H., & Verchere, C. B. (2016) · Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.tem.2016.04.009 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Guo, D.-Y., Li, D., Ning, M., Dang, X.-Y., Zhang, L., Zeng, L.-M., Hu, Y., & Leng, Y. (2015) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.09.130 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Sayers, S. R., Reimann, F. M., Gribble, F. M., Parker, H., Zac‐Varghese, S., Bloom, S. R., Foretz, M., Viollet, B., & Rutter, G. A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0149549 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Mediterranean Diet as an Antioxidant: The Impact on Metabolic Health and Overall Wellbeing
Gantenbein, K. V., & Kanaka-Gantenbein, C. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13061951 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Sun, Y., Jin, C., Zhang, X., Jia, W., Le, J., & Ye, J. (2018) · Nutrition and Diabetes · doi:10.1038/s41387-018-0061-x · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Qin, W., Ying, W., Hamaker, B., & Zhang, G. (2021) · Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety · doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12808 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
G protein-coupled receptors as potential targets for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease treatment
Yang, M. J., & Zhang, C. (2021) · World Journal of Gastroenterology · doi:10.3748/wjg.v27.i8.677 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Regulation of semen quality by fatty acids in diets, extender, and semen
Yuan, C., Wang, J., & Lu, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2023.1119153 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Baliou, S., Ιωάννου, Π., Apetroaei, M.-M., Vakonaki, E., Fragkiadaki, P., Kirithras, E., Tzatzarakis, M. N., Arsene, A. L., Docea, A. O., & Tsatsakis, A. M. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16152525 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Mortazavi, S.-H., Eslami, M., & Farrokhi‐Ardabili, F. (2020) · Animal Reproduction Science · doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2020.106533 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Reginato, A., Verás, A. C. C., Baqueiro, M. D. N., Panzarin, C., Siqueira, B. P., Milanski, M., Lisboa, P. C., & Torsoni, A. S. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22105357 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Circadian secretion rhythm of GLP-1 and its influencing factors
Liu, C., Liu, Y., Xin, Y., & Wang, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.991397 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Multiomics analysis revealed the mechanism of the anti-diabetic effect of Salecan
Yuan, L., Zhao, J., Liu, Y., Zhao, J., Olnood, C. G., Xu, Y., & Liu, Y. (2023) · Carbohydrate Polymers · doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.121694 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Ahmad, F., Ahmed, S. H., Choucair, F., Chouliaras, S., Awwad, J. T., & Terranegra, A. (2025) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12967-025-06117-x · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Tripterygium glycosides improve abnormal lipid deposition in nephrotic syndrome rat models
Zheng, B., Lu, D., Chen, X., Yin, Y.-H., Chen, W., Wang, X., Lin, H., Xu, P., Wu, A., & Liu, B. (2023) · Renal Failure · doi:10.1080/0886022x.2023.2182617 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationScannell, N., Villani, A., Moran, L., & Mantzioris, E. (2025) · Proceedings of the Nutrition Society · doi:10.1017/s0029665124007584 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…and marine n-3 PUFAs (e.g. EPA and DHA) act in the gastrointestinal tract to improve postprandial insulin release and sensitivity through increases in glucagon-like-peptide-1 (GLP1) expression from endocrine L-cells, which stimulates insulin secretion and inhibits glucagon secretion (157 – 159) .”
Lipidomics demonstrates the association of sex hormones with sebum
Chen, F., Hu, X., He, Y., & Huang, D. (2021) · Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology · doi:10.1111/jocd.14055 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Ntika, S., Thombare, K., Aryapoor, M., Kristinsson, H., Bergsten, P., & Krizhanovskii, C. (2018) · Biochimie · doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2018.11.017 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationPinyo, J., Hara, H., & Hira, T. (2020) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s000711452000433x · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Miguéns‐Gómez, A., Sierra‐Cruz, M., Pérez-Vendrell, A. M., Rodríguez‐Gallego, E., Beltrán‐Debón, R., Terra, X., Ardèvol, A., & Pinent, M. (2022) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d2fo02111k · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Abnormal post-prandial glucagon-like peptide release in patients with Crohn's disease
Lucotti, P., Lovati, E., Lenti, M. V., Valvo, B., Sprio, E., Aronico, N., Giuffrida, P., Dell’Aera, D., Pasini, A., Ubezio, C., et al. (2020) · Clinics and Research in Hepatology and Gastroenterology · doi:10.1016/j.clinre.2020.08.011 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Therapeutic Potential of Infrared and Related Light Therapies in Metabolic Diseases
Nowacka, A., Śniegocki, M., Smuczyński, W., & Ziółkowska, E. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26115134 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Let-7e-5p Regulates GLP-1 Content and Basal Release From Enteroendocrine L Cells From DIO Male Mice
Handgraaf, S., Dusaulcy, R., Visentin, F., Philippé, J., & Gosmain, Y. (2019) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endocr/bqz037 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Winkler, G., Hajós, P., & Kis, J. T. (2019) · Orvosi Hetilap · doi:10.1556/650.2019.31615 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Black, A. J., Schilder, R. J., & Kimball, S. R. (2018) · Nutrition & Metabolism · doi:10.1186/s12986-018-0326-3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zhou, H. (2021) · Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research · doi:10.26717/bjstr.2021.37.006017 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
GLP-1 Receptor Agonists at the Crossroads of Circadian Biology, Sleep, and Metabolic Disease
Gandhi, A., Phyu, E. M., Koom‐Dadzie, K., Dickson, K. B., & Halm, J. K. (2026) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms27062853 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Khan, S., Gaivin, R. J., Liu, Z., Li, V., Samuels, I. S., Son, J., Osei‐Owusu, P., Garvin, J. L., Accili, D., & Schelling, J. R. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci192011 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sharma, P., Bastidas, M. E., Ali, U., Sivasubramaniam, S. D., & Parthsarathy, V. (2025) · Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.mcn.2025.104036 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Influência da adesão ao Padrão Alimentar Mediterrânico na saúde ao longo do Ciclo de Vida
João, D. R., Mateus, M. P., & Braz, N. M. D. A. R. (2022) · Acta Portuguesa de Nutrição · doi:10.21011/apn.2022.2808 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effects of bioavailability of macronutrients on overall control of plasma glucose: a review
Mwakalu, S. M., Omwenga, V. O., & Ogao, P. J. (2023) · African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and Development · doi:10.18697/ajfand.125.23245
Improving semen quality of rams fed with ration containing protected maggot oil
Septiana, T. T., Khotijah, L., & Wiryawan, K. G. (2024) · Tropical Animal Health and Production · doi:10.1007/s11250-024-04045-4
Determination of the Dietary Needs of a Type 2 Diabetic Patient: A Neural Network Approach
Mwakalu, S. M., Omwenga, V. O., & Ogao, P. J. (2025) · International Conference on Electronics, Computers and Artificial Intelligence (ECAI) · doi:10.1109/ecai65401.2025.11095567
de Jesus, G. A., Dickson, A. L. G., de Mescouto, V. A., da Silva, M. G., Ribeiro, C. D. F. A., da Costa, C. E. F., Oliveira, R. J., de Almeida, B. R. R., Cardoso, A. L., Noronha, R. C. R., et al. (2026) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.5c11230
Das, U. N. (2026) · Reviews of physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology · doi:10.1007/978-981-92-5964-9_6
Ramasinghe, C., & Xu, B. (2026) · Clinical Nutrition ESPEN · doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2026.105166
- Authors
- Thombare, K., Ntika, S., Wang, X., & Krizhanovskii, C.
- Affiliations
- Södertälje Sjukhus (SE)
- Uppsala University (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Krizhanovskii, Camilla
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2017-05-16
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- e0177605
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5433723
- OpenAlex
- W2616297865
- Cited by
- 32
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 3
- FWCI
- 1.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Uppsala University Publications (Uppsala University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Mats Kleberg Foundation
- Tore Nilssons stiftelse
- Fredrik och Ingrid Thurings Stiftelse
- Folksams forskningsstiftelse
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Treatment and Management
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Pancreatic function and diabetes
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors
- Keywords
- GLP-1 secretion, L cells, saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids, palmitate, oleate, ceramide, apoptosis, lipotoxicity, free fatty acid receptors, free fatty acid receptor 1, FFAR3, proglucagon, prohormone convertase 1/3, GLUTag cells, high-fat diet
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cell Line, Cell Survival, Ceramides, Fatty Acids, Fatty Acids, Unsaturated, Reactive Oxygen Species, Oleic Acid, Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled, p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases, Mice, Glucagon-Like Peptide 1, Caspase 3
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
