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Examining individual and geographic factors associated with social isolation and loneliness using Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) data
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: A large body of research shows that social isolation and loneliness have detrimental health consequences. Identifying individuals at risk of social isolation or loneliness is, therefore, important. The objective of this study was to examine personal (e.g., sex, income) and geographic (rural/urban and sociodemographic) factors and their association with social isolation and loneliness in a national sample of Canadians aged 45 to 85 years. METHODS: The study involved cross-sectional analyses of baseline data from the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging that were linked to 2016 census data at the Forward Sortation Area (FSA) level. Multilevel logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine the association between personal factors and geographic factors and social isolation and loneliness for the total sample, and women and men, respectively. RESULTS: The prevalence of social isolation and loneliness was 5.1% and 10.2%, respectively, but varied substantially across personal characteristics. Personal characteristics (age, sex, education, income, functional impairment, chronic diseases) were significantly related to both social isolation and loneliness, although some differences emerged in the direction of the relationships for the two measures. Associations also differed somewhat for women versus men. Associations between some geographic factors emerged for social isolation, but not loneliness. Living in an urban core was related to increased odds of social isolation, an effect that was no longer significant when FSA-level factors were controlled for. FSAs with a higher percentage of 65+ year old residents with low income were consistently associated with higher odds of social isolation. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate that socially isolated individuals are, to some extent, clustered into areas with a high proportion of low-income older adults, suggesting that support and resources could be targeted at these areas. For loneliness, the focus may be less on where people live, but rather on personal characteristics that place individuals at risk.
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“Several socio-demographic variables were included in the analyses, given their known relationship with social isolation and loneliness [6–8,53,54].”
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“…quality of family and friend relationships in older adults and counter social isolation, a well-known risk factor for mortality, disability and disease in older adults (Bhatia et al., 2023; Chang et al., 2018; Freak-Poli et al., 2021; Menec et al., 2019; Nicholson, 2012; Sakurai et al., 2019).”
Labonté, K., Nielsen, D. E., Dubé, L., & Paquet, C. (2025) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2025.2581096
“The social isolation domain was based on Menec et al. (2019) method, which scored respondents on criteria that were informed by respondents’ living arrangement, marital status, frequency of contact with neighbors, friends, and relatives, and participation in social activities such as volunteer…”
Victor, C. R., & Pikhartova, J. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12375488
Ryan, B. L., Brown, J. B., Paktiss, S., & Terry, A. L. (2025) · Journal of Multimorbidity and Comorbidity · doi:10.1177/26335565251408339
“38 Evidence in the literature 40 – 42 is mixed concerning whether social isolation differs between urban and rural areas.”
Empirical research in very old age (80+)
y Hausmann, A. O., & Zank, S. (2026) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-26629-4.00251-3
Rural insights into the contested spaces of older voluntarism
Zapletal, A., Skinner, M. W., Snowden, E., & Russell, E. (2026) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2026.104107
A lifecourse perspective on social connectedness via receptiveness to nature
Rugel, E. J., Jarvis, I., Barron, S., & Wolf, K. L. (2026) · Urban forestry & urban greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2026.129381
Associations between migrant status, social isolation, and loneliness among older adults in India
Muhammad, T., Pai, M., Rishad, M., Murmu, A., Afsal, K., & Ali, W. (2026) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-026-07316-x
“Similar findings have been reported in previous studies [98–100].”
Association Between Social Isolation and Fall Injury
Kim, D. H., Lee, S., & Chung, J. H. (2026) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/hsc/6644375
Ming, K., Chaurasia, A. K., Mock, S. E., & Oremus, M. (2026) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/s10943-026-02665-8
In a Lonely Place: Investigating Regional Differences in LonelinessPreprint
Luhmann, M., Götz, F., Entringer, T. M., Ebert, T., & Buecker, S. (2024) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Catto, N., & Vincent, G. R. (2026) · World regional geography book series · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-04391-7_12
Watt, J. A., Sharma, S., Huang, Y. Q., Jones, A., Nicholson, K., Yu, A. Y., Straus, S. E., DiPaolo, M. T., Kapral, M. K., & Vyas, M. V. (2026) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afag267
“We classified those who responded ‘all the time’ or ‘occasionally’ as lonely [ 22].”
Calvey, B., Laurence, J., & Power, J. M. (2026) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbag195
“For example, individuals with relatively rich social networks may still experience loneliness if these network ties fail to provide adequate support or meaning (Newall & Menec, 2019), while others may be satisfied with their limited social circle and report low levels of loneliness as a result.”
InfluentialWilliams, A. A. A. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-11415407/v1
Loneliness in the United States: State-Level Variation and the Limits of Broad Geographic Context
Kan, W., Horner, M. W., DeJohn, A. D., & Li, Z. (2026) · The Professional Geographer · doi:10.1080/00330124.2026.2748665
Metadata
- Authors
- Menec, V. H., Newall, N. E., Mackenzie, C. S., Shooshtari, S., & Nowicki, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Manitoba (CA)
- Brandon University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Menec, Verena H.
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2019-02-01
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- e0211143
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6358157
- OpenAlex
- W2914353810
- Cited by
- 192
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 9
- FWCI
- 23.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (#373098)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Aging, Health, and Disability
- Social Sciences › Life-span and Life-course Studies › Aging, Elder Care, and Social Issues
- Keywords
- social isolation, loneliness, older adults, urban-rural differences, geographical factors, sociodemographic factors, income, sex differences, functional disability, chronic disease, Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Canada, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Geography, Humans, Loneliness, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Risk Factors, Rural Population, Social Isolation, Socioeconomic Factors, Urban Population, Logistic Models
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