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COVID-19 and mental health deterioration by ethnicity and gender in the UK
Open accessAbstract
We use the UK Household Longitudinal Study and compare pre-COVID-19 pandemic (2017-2019) and during-COVID-19 pandemic data (April 2020) for the same group of individuals to assess and quantify changes in mental health as measured by changes in the GHQ-12 (General Health Questionnaire), among ethnic groups in the UK. We confirm the previously documented average deterioration in mental health for the whole sample of individuals interviewed before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, we find that the average increase in mental distress varies by ethnicity and gender. Both women –regardless of their ethnicity– and Black, Asian, and minority ethnic (BAME) men experienced a higher average increase in mental distress than White British men, so that the gender gap in mental health increases only among White British individuals. These ethnic-gender specific changes in mental health persist after controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Finally, we find some evidence that, among men, Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani individuals have experienced the highest average increase in mental distress with respect to White British men.
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“possibly due to worsening mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic [16].”
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“In a UK study, non- white ethnicities (Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021) also experienced higher mental distress, in line with our findings.”
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“Furthermore, a recent study has reported that females (irrespective of ethnicity) and men from a Black, Asian, and minority ethnic (BAME) background were experiencing poorer mental health compared to White British men during the initial phase of pandemic [45].”
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“Lockdowns have had a disproportionate impact on the mental health and physical wellbeing of children, carers - many of whom are women – and some ethnic minorities (Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
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“Medical academic studies conducted in Austria (Pieh et al. 2020) and the UK (Daly et al. 2020; Proto and Quintana-Domeque 2021), which examine mental health outcomes before and during the pandemic, show that women were more likely than men to report an increase in (dis)stress, anxiety and…”
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García‐Prado, A., González, P., & Rebollo‐Sanz, Y. F. (2022) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101116 · Cited by 51
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“Still, using the same data, Proto and Quintana-Domeque (2021) document a drop in mental wellbeing by ethnicity and gender, showing that the gender gap in mental wellbeing has increased among White British individuals.”
MethodSelf-citationCOVID-19 and mental health in 8 low- and middle-income countries: A prospective cohort study
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“Longitudinal or repeated-cross-sectional studies in the UK (Kwong et al., 2021; Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021), Switzerland (Shanahan et al., 2020), and Japan (Kikuchi et al., 2020) have found similar patterns, although there is heterogeneity across international studies of the mental health…”
Psychology needs to get tired of winning
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InfluentialBeing on the Frontline? Immigrant Workers in Europe and the COVID-19 Pandemic
Fasani, F., & Mazza, J. (2023) · Industrial and Labor Relations Review · doi:10.1177/00197939231173676 · Cited by 19
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Bakkeli, N. Z. (2022) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/08944393211069622 · Cited by 18
“Ethnic minorities also have a substantially higher risk of poor health compared to the majority population (Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
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Seidler, Z. E., Wilson, M. J., Oliffe, J. L., Fisher, K., O’Connor, R. C., Pirkis, J., & Rice, S. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04539-9 · Cited by 23
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Costi, C., Hollingsworth, B. P., O’Sullivan, V., & Zucchelli, E. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115721 · Cited by 18
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“These findings might be understood in terms of the intersecting gender and ethnicity characteristics that may be differentially impacted by societal or cultural factors contributing to differences in outcomes [20, 48].”
BackgroundMental health in Germany before, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic
Patzina, A., Collischon, M., Hoffmann, R., & Obrizan, M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0313689 · Cited by 17
James, M., Jones, H., Baig, A., Marchant, E., Waites, T., Todd, C., Hughes, K. E., & Brophy, S. T. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0260640 · Cited by 21
Sheriff, R. S., Vuorre, M., Riga, E., Przybylski, A. K., Adams, H., Harmer, C. J., & Geddes, J. R. (2022) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674221115648 · Cited by 16
“Some YP have been affected more than others, including marginalised groups such as ethnic minorities (Abramovich et al., 2021; Bray et al., 2021; Proto and Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundBortel, T. V. V., Lombardo, C., Guo, L., Solomon, S., Martin, S. A., Hughes, K., Weeks, L., Crepaz‐Keay, D., McDaid, S., Chantler, O., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.875198 · Cited by 16
McIvor, C., Vafai, Y., Kelly, B., O’Toole, S. E., Heys, M., Badrick, E., Iqbal, H., Pickett, K. E., Cameron, C., & Dickerson, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192114316 · Cited by 16
Lenoir, R., & Wong, K. K. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-071903 · Cited by 21
Proto, E., & Quintana‐Domeque, C. (2022) · The B E Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy · doi:10.1515/bejeap-2021-0394 · Cited by 16
Self-citationThe effects of social capital deprivation for wellbeing: Evidence from the Covid-19 pandemic
Slater, G. (2024) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2024.101395 · Cited by 15
The trajectory of mental health problems for UK emerging adults during COVID-19
Thorpe, W. J. R., & Gutman, L. M. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.10.068 · Cited by 17
“For ethnicity, in a study comparing pre-pandemic and pandemic data for the same group of individuals, Black, Asian, and Minority (BAME) men from the UK experienced a higher increase in mental distress compared to White British men during the first lockdown (Proto and Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundMueller, J., Richards, R., Jones, R. A., Whittle, F., Woolston, J., Stubbings, M., Sharp, S. J., Griffin, S. J., Bostock, J., Hughes, C. A., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-022-01232-x · Cited by 13
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“Participants were recruited through local community organisations supporting ethnic minorities, with study information sent to 19 organisations in NENC and 8 in the North West and Merseyside.”
Plenty, S. M., Bracegirdle, C., Dollmann, J., & Spiegler, O. (2021) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-021-00418-x · Cited by 17
“However, longitudinal studies among adults have found few group differences in decreases in mental well-being between pre-pandemic (2017–2019) and pandemic (April 2020) assessments [5, 39, 45].”
BackgroundSelf-Compassion during COVID-19 in Non-WEIRD Countries: A Narrative Review
Kotera, Y., Kirkman, A., Beaumont, J., Komorowska, M. A., Such, E., Kaneda, Y., & Rushforth, A. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11142016 · Cited by 14
“Amongst the male population, Bangladeshi, Indian and Pakistani individuals experienced the highest increase in the UK [8].”
BackgroundMoreno‐Agostino, D., Fisher, H. L., Hatch, S. L., Morgan, C., Ploubidis, G. B., & Das‐Munshi, J. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722003348 · Cited by 17
“…anxiety increased in the population, with younger people, women, those in disadvantaged SEP, and those with pre-existing mental health conditions being disproportionately impacted (Kwong et al., 2021; Niedzwiedz et al., 2021; Patel et al., 2022; Pierce et al., 2020; Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundOtten, D., Heller, A., Schmidt, P. S., Beutel, M. E., & Brähler, E. (2023) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-023-02479-z · Cited by 16
“Other studies also confirmed this, e.g., women reporting higher mental distress during the COVID-19 pandemic than men [89, 90].”
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Psychological Wellbeing and Associated Factors Among Ethnic Minorities During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Wong, C. L., Leung, A. W. Y., Chan, D. N. S., Chow, K. M., Chan, C. W. H., Ng, M. S. N., & So, W. K. W. (2022) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-022-01347-3 · Cited by 13
“Data on ethnic minorities and their psychological wellbeing during COVID-19 are scarce and equivocal [20, 21].”
BackgroundMuscat, D. M., Ayre, J., Mac, O. A., Batcup, C., Cvejic, E., Pickles, K. M., Dolan, H., Bonner, C., Mouwad, D., Zachariah, D., et al. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058323 · Cited by 13
Chan, H. F., Cheng, Z., Mendolia, S., Paloyo, A. R., Tani, M., Proulx, D., Savage, D. A., & Torgler, B. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-51854-6 · Cited by 13
Time use and happiness: Evidence across three decades
Han, J., & Kaiser, C. (2021) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-024-00982-4 · Cited by 13
Hamza, M., Edwards, R. C., Beaumont, J. D., Pretto, L. D., & Torn, A. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117265 · Cited by 12
Blasi, M. D., Albano, G., Bassi, G., Mancinelli, E., Giordano, C., Mazzeschi, C., Pazzagli, C., Salcuni, S., Coco, G. L., Gelo, O. C. G., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182111656 · Cited by 12
Sels, L., Galdiolo, S., Gaugue, J., Géonet, M., Verhelst, P., Chiarolanza, C., Randall, A. K., & Verhofstadt, L. (2022) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.1088 · Cited by 12
“For example, in the UK, women have reported worse mental health outcomes than men (e.g., O’ Connor, et al., 2021; Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021).”
BackgroundZhang, X., Xiao, Y., Xu, P., & Dong, S. (2025) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909251324571 · Cited by 17
“Evidence from numerous studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic also suggests that women have experienced disproportionately higher levels of mental health distress compared to their male counterparts (Mir et al., 2023; Proto & Quintana-Domeque, 2021; Saw et al., 2022; Xiong et al., 2020).”
Baxter, T., Shenoy, S., Lee, H.-S., Griffith, T., Rivas-Baxter, A., & Park, S. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00207640221140285 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Proto, E., & Quintana-Domeque, C.
- Affiliations
- IZA - Institute of Labor Economics (DE)
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2021-01-06
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- e0244419
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7787387
- OpenAlex
- W3120271639
- Cited by
- 297
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 61 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 55
- FWCI
- 41.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Knowledge@UChicago (University of Chicago) (submittedVersion)
- University of Chicago (cc-by)
- Funders
- University of Essex
- University of Exeter
- University of Liverpool
- University of Queensland
- Economic and Social Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Employment and Welfare Studies
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, mental health deterioration, psychological distress, ethnic differences, gender differences, Black, Asian and minority ethnic groups, UK Household Longitudinal Study, GHQ-12
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adult, Mental Disorders, Ethnicity, Female, United Kingdom, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Minority Groups, Racial Groups, Pandemics
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