The DOI matches its Crossref record; 5 of the 6 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 10 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Reconstructing Pre-Industrial Long Distance Roads in a Hilly Region in Germany, Based on Historical and Archaeological Data
Open accessAbstract
The aim of this contribution is on the one hand to map pre-industrial long distance roads located in a hilly region east of Cologne, Germany, as exactly as possible and on the other hand to assess the accuracy of least-cost approaches that are increasingly applied by archaeologists for prehistoric road reconstruction. Probably the earliest map covering the study area east of Cologne dates back to 1575. The map is distorted so that rectification is difficult. But it is possible to assess the local accuracy of the map and to transfer the approximate routes to a modern map manually. Most of the area covered by the 1575 map is also depicted on a set of more accurate maps created in the early 19th century and a somewhat later historical map set (ca. 1842 AD). The historical roads on these rectified historical maps close to the approximate roads were digitized and compared to the outcomes of least-cost analysis, specifically least-cost paths and accessibility maps. Based on these route reconstructions with limited accuracy, Lidar data is checked to identify remains of these roads. Several approaches for visualizing Lidar data are tested to identify appropriate methods for detecting sunken roads. Possible sunken roads detected on the Lidar images were validated by checking cross sections in the digital elevation model and in the field.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This study tests whether least-cost path (LCP) analysis and Lidar-based detection of sunken roads can precisely locate pre-industrial long-distance roads depicted on a 1575 map east of Cologne, Germany. It finds that LCPs are often very close to the approximate historical route bundle, while Lidar reveals many possible sunken roads but usually as bundles that cannot by themselves pinpoint the exact road.
Key findings
- The 1575 Mercator map is strongly distorted: comparing 939 triangulation edges, the length factor ranges from 4.3 to 67.3, with an average of 16.2 and median of 15.5; 514 of 939 edges fall between 12 and 20, and no systematic distortion pattern is recognizable.
- LCPs using a slope-dependent cost function with critical slope 12% and wet-soil multipliers of 4 or 5 fit the reconstructed route bundle well; a wetness multiplier of 6 generated some detours.
- Lidar visualization recorded 1514 possible sunken roads with an average length of 93 m; nearly all were in forest or brush, many formed bundles, and the majority were fairly well aligned with the approximate Mercator routes.
- An accessibility map based on least-cost kernel density estimation showed that nearly all routes lie within high-accessibility corridors, suggesting LCPs in narrow high-accessibility corridors reconstruct historical routes more reliably.
Methods
- The study area covers about 500 km² in a hilly rural region east of Cologne, Germany. The main test case is roads on Gerhard Mercator’s 1575 map, transferred approximately to a modern map using place names and water bodies, with additional historical maps by Waye (1607), Ploennies (1715), early and later von Müffling maps, and the Neuaufnahme (1891–1912).
- LCP analysis connected 11 pairs of settlements close to the Mercator routes. Costs used a symmetric quadratic slope function with critical slope 12%, wet soils as barriers with a multiplier of 5 (4 and 6 tested), ford multiplier 2, and spreading in 24 directions; accessibility was calculated by least-cost KDE with an Epanechnikov kernel radius of 1 km.
- Lidar analysis used DEM1 at 1 m resolution, covering 141 tiles of 4 km², of which 83 were intersected by approximate Mercator routes. Visualizations were produced with RVT and Vertical Mapper; Local Relief and Openness negative gave the best results, and validation included cross sections and a field visit in October 2016.
Limitations
- The paper states that Mercator’s map is distorted and difficult to rectify; only approximate modern locations of the roads could be reconstructed, and Romberg is missing so it cannot be decided whether the road ran north or south of it. QGIS thin-plate rectification had a mean error of 9.1 pixels, distorted house images, unreadable place names, black holes, and creek displacements of 400 m or more.
- The paper notes that early and later von Müffling maps can have position errors of about 300 m, map sheets do not always fit well, and it is hard to distinguish main from minor roads.
- For Lidar, the paper states that reliably identifying sunken roads is difficult, validation is required, the work is time-consuming, automatic extraction remains future research, statistical testing of sunken-road bundles is not straightforward because observations are not independent, and dating the sunken roads requires further research. The text also makes evident that field validation covered only a fairly small number of locations.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Verification
Claims the paper makes
0 of 10 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingnone given
South of Wiehl, the bundle of possible routes covers a broader zone than in most other parts of the study area.
“South of Wiehl, the bundle of possible routes covers a broader zone than in most other parts of the study area.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The distance between Büscherhof and Baumen on Mercator's map is much longer than the true distance.
“In contrast, the edge between Büscherhof and Baumen is red because the distance on Mercator's map is much longer than the true distance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Position errors of 300 m might occur in the early von Müffling maps.
“The map section in Fig. 5 suggests not only that the rivers and creeks underwent some regulation but also that position errors of 300 m might occur.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Nearly all routes are located within high accessibility corridors.
“Nearly all routes are located within high accessibility corridors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For most other road sections, the transferred Mercator, Waye and Ploennies roads coincide quite well.
“For most other road sections, the transferred Mercator, Waye and Ploennies roads coincide quite well (Fig. 4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
For the short road between points 1 and 9, the LCP is closest to the road digitized from the early von Müffling maps.
“For the short road between points 1 and 9, the LCP is closest to the road digitized from the early von Müffling maps.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
On the early von Müffling maps, it is hard to distinguish between main and minor roads.
“The early von Müffling maps, as well as all later maps on this scale, record many roads and paths, but it is hard to distinguish between main and minor roads.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The accessibility map (Fig. 8) shows corridors of high accessibility that are the ridges in this landscape.
“Fig. 8 shows corridors of high accessibility; these are the ridges in this landscape.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The variation of the length factor comparing Mercator and modern map distances is quite high.
“The variation of the length factor comparing Mercator and modern map distances is quite high.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Most sections of the transferred Mercator routes are within a 200 m buffer of the rectified routes.
“Most sections of the transferred Mercator routes are within a 200 m buffer of the rectified routes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The length factor of 514 out of 939 edges is in the range between 12 and 20.
“The length factor of 514 out of 939 edges is in the range between 12 and 20.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
The Ploennies maps are distorted.
“These maps are distorted, too; therefore the routes were manually transferred to the modern map as outlined above.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Some of the early von Müffling map sheets do not fit well in the WMS provided by Geobasis NRW.
“Although the web map service (WMS) provided by Geobasis NRW for the early von Müffling maps is based on an improved rectification of the map sheets, some of the map sheets do not fit well (Fig. 5 leftmost image; Fig. 6).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The QGIS rectification was successful in placing settlement symbols on Mercator's map very close to the corresponding control point locations on the modern map.
“The rectification was successful in that the symbols indicating settlements on Mercator's map were placed very close to the corresponding control point location on the modern map.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Only the approximate modern location of the roads depicted on the 1575 Mercator map could be reconstructed, due to distortions and other reasons.
“Due to distortions and several other reasons, only the approximate modern location of the roads depicted on the map created in 1575 could be reconstructed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
In forest areas, hardly any improvements are visible when using higher resolution DEMs based on DEM1L data instead of DEM1 data.
“In forest areas, hardly any improvements are visible when using higher resolution DEMs based on DEM1L data instead of DEM1 data [Herzog et al. 2016].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Herzog et al. 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingown data
A simple transformation is not adequate for rectifying the Mercator map, as shown by comparison of true distances and distances on the historical map.
“But the comparison of the true distances and the distances on the historical map presented in the next section demonstrates that a simple transformation is not adequate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No pattern can be detected in the spatial distribution of the distortions of Mercator's map.
“In Fig. 2, no pattern can be detected in the spatial distribution of the distortions of Mercator's map.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The QGIS geo-referencer rectification of Mercator's map has a mean error of 9.1 pixels.
“The result of the QGIS geo-referencer is an uncompressed tif file of nearly 1 GB; the mean error is 9.1 pixels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
The areas surrounding rivers and creeks were assigned low accessibility values.
“The areas surrounding rivers and creeks were assigned low accessibility values.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The length factor comparing Mercator and modern map distances varies in the range of 4.3 to 67.3.
“Fig. 2 shows that the length factor varies in the range of 4.3 to 67.3.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No systematic distortion pattern can be recognized in the Mercator map.
“Moreover, no systematic distortion pattern can be recognized.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
A large number of off-main-road settlements existed in 1575.
“A large number of these off-main-road settlements existed in 1575 (Figs.1b and 3c).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Sunken roads can be detected in many forest areas at some distance from the historical roads considered here.
“Sunken roads can be detected in many forest areas at some distance from the historical roads considered here.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
The majority of the sunken roads are fairly well aligned with the approximate Mercator routes.
“The majority of the sunken roads are fairly well aligned with the approximate Mercator routes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Many of these features form typical bundles.
“Many of these features form typical bundles (Fig. 9)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Fig. 11 shows that nearly all possible sunken roads were identified in areas of high accessibility.
“Fig. 11 shows that nearly all possible sunken roads were identified in areas of high accessibility.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
LCPs avoiding wet soils and with a critical slope of 13% fitted best to the trade routes.
“LCPs avoiding wet soils and with a critical slope of 13% fitted best to the trade routes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Herzog 2013a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
If a linear depression is rather short, fairly narrow, not very deep or not accompanied by a bundle of other linear depressions, the risk of misinterpretation rises.
“If a linear depression is rather short, fairly narrow, not very deep or not accompanied by a bundle of other linear depressions, the risk of misinterpretation rises.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Some of the roads analyzed in this study are considerably earlier than 1575.
“So some of the roads analyzed in this study are considerably earlier than 1575.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Rectifying Mercator's map is very difficult.
“The discussion above shows that rectifying Mercator's map is very difficult.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The location of small streams in steep areas has not changed much over the past 500 years.
- Interpretationown data
The simple cost models used in this study work surprisingly well.
“These simple cost models work surprisingly well:”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The same route is taken on the way from P1 to P2 and back.
- Premisecitation
Appropriate cost models for reconstructing old trade routes in a region overlapping with the study area were already derived in earlier research.
“Appropriate cost models for reconstructing old trade routes in a region overlapping with the study area were already derived in earlier research [Herzog 2013a].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Herzog 2013a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The true roads can probably be found within a small buffer zone enclosing the possible routes discussed above.
“Probably the true roads can be found within a small buffer zone enclosing the possible routes discussed above.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Large distances between transferred and rectified Mercator routes are mainly due to the topography being taken into account when transferring the historical roads to the modern map.
“Large distances are mainly due to the fact that the topography was taken into account when transferring the historical roads to the modern map.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Very few locations where very short and very long edges meet indicate that settlement centers on the historical map and on the modern map do not correspond.
“Fig. 2 shows only a very few locations where very short and very long edges meet, indicating that the settlement centers on the historical map and on the modern map do not correspond.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Within a broad corridor, small deviations from the least-cost path result in small amounts of extra costs.
“Within such a broad corridor, small deviations from the least-cost path result in small amounts of extra costs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
For many of these features, the exact location of the historical road cannot be determined.
“and so the exact location of the historical road cannot be determined.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
These sunken roads at a distance are most probably the remains of roads connecting the settlements not located close to the main historical roads depicted on the Mercator and the Waye maps.
“These are most probably the remains of roads connecting the settlements not located close to the main historical roads depicted on the Mercator and the Waye maps.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- The quote only partly states this claim. 4
- It may state two separate claims as one. 22
- Probably not a substantial claim. 21
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataNo obvious misinterpretations were detected in the field validation of a fairly small number of locations with possible sunken roads.
“No obvious misinterpretations were detected.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataA wetness multiplier of 6 generates some detours, while wetness multipliers of 4 or 5 are more appropriate.
“A wetness multiplier of 6 generates some detours (Fig. 7 left); wetness multipliers of 4 or 5 are more appropriate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataOur tests of different visualization methods suggested that besides the hill-shading approaches, 'Local Relief' and 'Openness negative' provide the best results in terms of sunken road detection.
“Our tests of different visualization methods suggested that besides the hill-shading approaches,”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
FindingreasoningDue to these limitations, the Rhineland Commission for Archaeological Monuments and Sites in Bonn mainly works with RVT.
“Due to these limitations, the Rhineland Commission for Archaeological Monuments and Sites in Bonn mainly works with RVT [Kokalj et al. 2011;Zakšek et al. 2011].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Kokalj et al. 2011
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Zakšek et al. 2011 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Findingnone givenFor most road sections, the results of the initial method used to transfer the roads on the modern map were not too bad.
“For most road sections, the results of the initial method used to transfer the roads on the modern map were not too bad.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenThe Neuaufnahme map set (1891-1912) has improved accuracy compared to previous map sets, and the borders of adjacent map sheets fit very well.
“Compared to the previous map sets, the accuracy is improved once again; the borders of adjacent map sheets fit very well.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimThe quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataThe LCPs connecting points 5 and 6 are located in the center of the broad zone south of Wiehl.
“The LCPs connecting points 5 and 6 are located in the center of the broad zone.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataCorresponding roads are also depicted on the later von Müffling maps, but these were not as close to the approximate route as the ones digitized.
“Corresponding roads are also depicted on the later von Müffling maps, but these were not as close to the approximate route as the ones digitized.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingnone givenTwo black holes, the larger with a diameter of nearly 2 km, point toward some trouble in the rectified Mercator map.
“Two black holes, the larger one with a diameter of nearly 2 km, point toward some trouble.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenThe later von Müffling maps (Uraufnahme) cover the entire study area and have improved accuracy, although some problems remain, especially close to map sheet borders.
“The later von Müffling maps (Uraufnahme) cover the entire study area, and the accuracy was improved, although some problems, especially close to the border of the map sheets, remain.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe LCPs are very close to the ground truth route bundle and coincide for most road sections.
“The LCPs are very close to the ground truth route bundle and coincide for most road sections.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The same route is taken on the way from P1 to P2 and back.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingnone givenThe image with the label 'Hillshade (NE)' in Fig. 9 clearly shows the disadvantages of considering only one hill shading direction.
“In Fig. 9, the image with the label”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataIn the end, 1514 possible sunken roads with an average length of 93 m were recorded.
“In the end, 1514 possible sunken roads with an average length of 93 m were recorded (Fig. 10).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataRomberg is missing on the Mercator map, so it is not possible to decide if the road ran north or south of Romberg.
“Unfortunately, Romberg is missing on the Mercator map, therefore it is not possible to decide if the road ran north or south of Romberg.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
FindingcitationLiVT requires a 64 bit Windows operating system and does not support standard GDAL output formats, so importing its results to a GIS other than Global Mapper is hardly possible.
“The software requires a 64 bit Windows operating system; none of the standard Geospatial Data Abstraction Library (GDAL) output formats is supported, so that importing the results to a GIS other than Global Mapper is hardly possible.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenThe previous sections identified several possible routes for the roads depicted on Mercator's map.
“The previous sections identified several possible routes for the roads depicted on Mercator's map.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataThe average length factor comparing Mercator and modern map distances is 16.2, and the median is 15.5.
“The average length factor is 16.2, the median is 15.5.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataIn the rectified Mercator map, small images of houses are often severely distorted and some place names are no longer readable.
“But often the small images of houses are severely distorted in the rectified map, and some of the place names are no longer readable.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingnone givenThe study area is covered by 141 4 km2 tiles; 83 tiles are intersected by the approximate Mercator routes.
“The study area is covered by 141 of these 4 km² tiles; 83 tiles are intersected by the approximate Mercator routes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Findingown dataFig. 9 shows the difficulties of reliably identifying sunken roads based on Lidar images.
“But Fig. 9 also shows the difficulties of reliably identifying sunken roads based on Lidar images.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
FindingreasoningGaps in the reconstructed road network based on the early von Müffling maps are due to the maps not covering the total study area and sometimes no corresponding road being found.
“Gaps in this reconstructed road network are due to the fact that the early von Müffling maps do not cover the total study area; sometimes, no corresponding road was found on the von Müffling maps.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataVisual inspection of the distribution of the sunken roads recorded creates the impression that the vast majority of these features are part of bundles and that most of the bundles are aligned with the approximately reconstructed roads.
“The visual inspection of the distribution of the sunken roads recorded creates the impression that the vast majority of these features are part of bundles and that most of the bundles are aligned with the approximately reconstructed roads.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
Findingown dataNearly all of these sunken road remains are located in land used by forest or brush; hardly any of these features are still visible in fields or meadows.
“Nearly all of these sunken road remains are located in land used by forest or brush; hardly any of these features are still visible in fields or meadows.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
InterpretationreasoningThe routes derived from Nicke's descriptions differ only slightly from those transferred from the historical maps.
“Nicke knew the historical maps in this area, and so the routes derived from his descriptions differ only slightly from those transferred from these maps.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenThe road bundles consisting of transferred Mercator and Waye routes and closest roads from rectified early and later von Müffling maps provide the ground truth for the LCP calculations.
“The road bundles consisting of the initial transferred Mercator and Waye routes as well as the closest roads digitized from the rectified early and later von Müffling maps provide the ground truth for the LCP calculations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningValidation is required for sunken road candidates detected by visualization of Lidar data.
“Therefore, validation is required for sunken road candidates detected by visualization of Lidar data.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationHesse mainly recommends the methods Accessibility and Sky-View Factor for sunken road visualization, whereas in his view the results of Shaded Relief and Trend Removal or Local Relief Model are only moderately suitable.
“Hesse [Hesse 2016] mainly recommends the methods Accessibility and Sky-View Factor for sunken road visualization, whereas in his view the results of Shaded Relief and Trend Removal or Local Relief Model are only moderately suitable.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hesse 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
InterpretationcitationSunken roads with a fairly steep gradient may have been modified in width and depth by heavy rains in the past, so that they can be easily confused with the remains of a temporary or small creek not recorded in modern topographic data.
“Sunken roads with a fairly steep gradient may have been modified in width and depth by heavy rains in the past (pers.comm.Renate Gerlach) so that they can be easily confused with the remains of a temporary or small creek not recorded in modern topographic data.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites pers.comm.Renate Gerlach
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
Interpretationnone givenSome of the differences between the LCPs and the digitized roads might be caused by modern man-made landscape modifications such as quarries, river and creek regulations, and dam construction.
“Some of the differences between the LCPs and the digitized roads might be caused by modern man-made landscape modifications (e.g.quarries, regulations of rivers and creeks, dam construction for water reservoirs).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone givenThe features detected on the computer screen are best validated by surveying in the field (or in the forest).
“Yet the features detected on the computer screen are best validated by surveying in the field (or in the forest).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationThe Waye map is mainly a modified copy of Mercator's map, with some of Mercator's road sections missing and some added.
“This map is mainly a modified copy of Mercator's map; some of Mercator's road sections are missing, some are added.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Waye and Waye 1607
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Interpretationnone givenTraces of old roads indicate with high probability the correct location of the historical roads.
“Such traces indicate with high probability the correct location of the historical roads.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningThe concentration of possible sunken roads in areas of high accessibility is mainly due to the approximate Mercator routes being located in these areas and only the Lidar data close to these routes being inspected.
“But this is mainly due to the fact that the approximate Mercator routes are located in these areas; only the Lidar data close to these routes was inspected.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningSome sunken roads are nearly perpendicular to the approximate Mercator routes, suggesting they are minor roads.
“Some are nearly perpendicular to these routes, suggesting minor roads.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
PremisecitationMisclassification rates are not given in that study and it seems that the number of cases tested is fairly low.
“Misclassification rates are not given in that study and it seems that the number of cases tested is fairly low.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Vletter 2014 source
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
PremisecitationA study comparing several work flows for automatic extraction of sunken roads was published in 2014.
“A study comparing several work flows for automatic extraction of sunken roads was published in 2014 [Vletter 2014].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Vletter 2014 source
It may state two separate claims as one.
Interpretationown dataWith the Lidar data processing presented above, including validation, many sunken roads associated with the routes depicted on Mercator's map can be identified with high reliability, but this is quite time consuming.
“With the Lidar data processing presented above, including validation, many sunken roads associated with the routes depicted on Mercator's map can be identified with high reliability, but this is quite time consuming.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimIt may state two separate claims as one.
InterpretationreasoningSome of these minor roads must be very old as well, because on the Mercator map even some of the church villages are not connected to the roads depicted.
“Some of these minor roads must be very old as well, because on the Mercator map even some of the church villages are not connected to the roads depicted.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
InterpretationreasoningStatistical testing of these hypotheses is not straightforward, because the observed sunken road remains are not independent from each other.
“Statistical testing of these hypotheses is not straightforward, because the observed sunken road remains are not independent from each other.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The observed sunken road remains are not independent from each other.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
InterpretationreasoningFor validating a procedure for automatic extraction of sunken roads, a large training set of verified sunken roads of different lengths, widths and slopes is required.
“But for validating a procedure for automatic extraction of sunken roads, a large training set of verified sunken roads of different lengths, widths and slopes is required.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The same route is taken on the way from P1 to P2 and back.
“it is assumed that the same route is taken on the way from P1 to P2 and back.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The location of small streams in steep areas has not changed much over the past 500 years.
“The location of small streams in steep areas most probably did not change much over the past 500 years”
The authors state this as an assumption.
LCPs within narrow corridors of high accessibility reconstruct historical routes with higher reliability.
“Therefore, it is plausible to assume that LCPs within narrow corridors of high accessibility reconstruct historical routes with higher reliability.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The observed sunken road remains are not independent from each other.
“because the observed sunken road remains are not independent from each other.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Bundles of sunken roads found in forested parts of the study region indicate that many trade route sections were broad corridors rather than narrow tracks.
“Moreover, bundles of sunken roads found in forested parts of the study region indicate that many trade route sections were broad corridors rather than narrow tracks [Herzog 2017;Nicke 2000: 23, 34-36].”
From Issues in replication and stability of least-cost path calculations (2022) · cites this paper as Herzog 2017
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conflicting publication years for the reconstructed Mercator map
MinorThe text says the reconstructed map was published in 1995, but its reference says it was copied in 1995 and published in 1999.
“A reconstructed version of the map based on the original map and some later copies was published in 1995.”
“Copied by Hans Weirich in 1995. Published in 1999, along with 2 pages describing the history of the map by Hans Weirich, Lothar Wirths, and Klaus Pampus”
Citations
Cites
Sky-View Factor as a Relief Visualization Technique
Zakšek, K., Oštir, K., & Kokalj, Ž. (2011) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs3020398 · Cited by 562
Zigzagging: Theoretical insights on climbing strategies
Llobera, M., & Sluckin, T. J. (2007) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2007.07.020 · Cited by 103
(Semi) automatic extraction from airborne laser scan data of roads and paths in forested areas
Vletter, W. F. (2014) · SPIE Proceedings · doi:10.1117/12.2069709 · Cited by 4
Systematische Auswertung von LiDAR-Daten im Rheinland
Herzog, I., Stratbücker, J., & Bödecker, S. (2019) · Archäologie im Rheinland · doi:10.11588/air.2015.0.66777 · Cited by 1
Self-citation(2014) · CNR Solar (Scientific Open-access Literature Archive and Repository) (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche)
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 6 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- REFERENCES Irmela Herzog. 2013a. Least-cost networks. In Archaeology in the Digital Era. CAA 2012. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA), (Southampton 2013), 240-251.
- Irmela Herzog. 2013b. Calculating accessibility. In Archaeology in the Digital Era, Volume II. CAA 2012. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA), Amsterdam, 720-734. http://dare.uva.nl/cgi/arno/show.cgi?fid=545855
- Reconstructing Pre-Industrial Long-Distance Roads 1:659 Studies in Digital Heritage, Vol. 1, No. 2, Publication date: December 2017
- Irmela Herzog. 2015. Analysing settlement patterns in the Bergisches Land, Germany. In Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Cultural Heritage and New Technologies 2014 (CHNT 19, 2014). Vienna. 15 pages. http://www.chnt.at/proceedings-chnt-19/
- Ralf Hesse. 2016. Visualisierung hochauflösender digitaler Geländemodelle mit LiVT. In: U. Lieberwirth & I. Herzog (eds.), 3D-Anwendungen in der Archäologie. Computeranwendungen und Quantitative Methoden in der Archäologie -Workshop der AG CAA und des Exzellenzclusters Topoi 2013. Berlin Studies of the Ancient World. Edition topoi, 109-128.
- Žiga Kokalj et al. 2011. Application of Sky-View Factor for the Visualization of Historic Landscape Features in Lidar-Derived Relief Models. Antiquity 85 (2011), 327, 263-273.
- Marcos Llobera. 2000. Understanding movement: a pilot model towards the sociology of movement. In Beyond the Map. Archaeology and Spatial Technologies, ed. Gary Lock, 65-84. Amsterdam, Berlin, Oxford, Tokyo, Washington DC: IOS Press.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Fábrega‐Álvarez, P., & Parcero‐Oubiña, C. (2019) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2019.02.002 · Cited by 54
Lewis, J. (2021) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-021-09522-w · Cited by 53
Finding the Limits of the Limes
Verhagen, P., Joyce, J., & Groenhuijzen, M. R. (2019) · Computational social sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04576-0 · Cited by 47
Kempf, M. (2019) · Geoarchaeology · doi:10.1002/gea.21752 · Cited by 34
Seifried, R. M., & Gardner, C. A. M. (2019) · Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.01.014 · Cited by 29
Issues in replication and stability of least-cost path calculations
Herzog, I. (2022) · Studies in DIGITAL Heritage · doi:10.14434/sdh.v5i2.33796 · Cited by 23
Self-citationSunken lanes - Development and functions in landscapes
Zgłobicki, W., Poesen, J., Geeter, S. D., Boardman, J., Gawrysiak, L., Golosov, V., Ioniţă, I., Niacșu, L., Rodzik, J., Stankoviansky, M., et al. (2021) · Earth-Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103757 · Cited by 20
ÁLVAREZ, S. N. (2022) · Journal of Archaeological Science Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103612 · Cited by 9
Casas, D. G., & Ballbé, E. G. (2023) · Quaternary International · doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2023.07.007 · Cited by 7
Hagmann, D. (2025) · Journal of Archaeological Science · doi:10.1016/j.jas.2024.106151 · Cited by 6
Identification of historical trackways in forests using contextual geospatial analyses
Slámová, M., Pažinová, N. B., Belčáková, I., Beljak, J., & Maliniak, P. (2022) · Archaeological Prospection · doi:10.1002/arp.1882 · Cited by 4
ÁLVAREZ, S. N., Ballón, J. B., Solla, M. G., Ínsua, J. C., & Seijas, M. C. (2018) · Semata: Ciencias sociais e humanidades · doi:10.15304/s.30.5219 · Cited by 3
Herzog, I. (2022) · it - Information Technology · doi:10.1515/itit-2022-0010 · Cited by 2
Self-citationGeospatial mapping of a 16th century transport corridor for Southeast Europe
Kabadayı, M. E., Gerrits, P., & Boykov, G. (2021) · Digital Scholarship in the Humanities · doi:10.1093/llc/fqab084 · Cited by 1
Lewis, J. (2020) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/mxas2 · Cited by 1
Exploring the inherent affordability for movement in past landscapes
Parcero-Oubiña, C., & Solana-Muñoz, A. (2027) · Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory · doi:10.1007/s10816-026-09813-0
Analysing the Medieval Landscape of the German Palatinate
Pattee, A., Volkmann, A., Anders, K., & Mara, H. (2018) · GI_Forum · doi:10.1553/giscience2018_02_s39
Space, Environment and Quantitative Approaches in Archaeology
Castiello, M. E. (2022) · Springer theses · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-88567-0_2
The road (not) taken. Reconstructing pre-modern roads in Viabundus. Methods and opportunities
Dengg, M. C. (2023) · CNR SOLAR (Scientific Open-access Literature Archive and Repository) (University of Southampton)
Jin, X., Shi, Z., & An, C. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-8803383/v1
Parcero-Oubiña, C., Güimil-Fariña, A., Fonte, J., & Costa-García, J. M. (2019) · Computational Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04576-0_14 · Cited by 20
Metadata
- Authors
- Herzog, I.
- Venue
- Studies in Digital Heritage
- Publisher
- IUScholarWorks
- Published
- 2017-12-14
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 642-660
- ISSN
- 2574-1748 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2773515694
- Cited by
- 21
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 2
- FWCI
- 4.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- Studies in Digital Heritage (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Indiana Magazine of History (Indiana University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeological Research and Protection
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient and Medieval Archaeology Studies
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Geophysics › Geophysical Methods and Applications
- Keywords
- least-cost path analysis, historical maps, map rectification, historical cartography, hilly terrain, LiDAR, road detection, accessibility maps
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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