Only Hope: Coming of Age Under China’s One-Child Policy
Abstract
The first generation of children born under China's one-child family policy is now reaching adulthood. What are these children like? What are their values, goals, and interests? What kinds of relationships do they have with their families? This is the first in-depth study to analyze what it is like to grow up as the state-appointed vanguard of modernization. Based on surveys and ethnographic research in China, where the author lived with teenage only children and observed their homes and classrooms for 27 months between 1997 and 2002, the book explores the social, economic, and psychological consequences of the government's decision to accelerate the fertility transition. Only Hope shows how the one-child policy has largely succeeded in its goals, but with unintended consequences. Only children are expected to be the primary providers of support and care for their retired parents, grandparents, and parents-in-law, and only a very lucrative position will allow them to provide for so many dependents. Many only children aspire to elite status even though few can attain it, and such aspirations lead to increased stress and competition, as well as intense parental involvement.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Without siblings, these women have become the sole beneficiaries of family investments.
“Without siblings, these women have become the sole beneficiaries of family investments (Fong, 2004; Kim et al., 2018).”
From Virtues or Talent among Brotherless Daughters: A Study of How Patriarchal Gender Ideals Affect Gender Role Attitudes among Women from the One-Child Generation in China (2024) · cites this paper as Fong, 2004
With the number of children restricted to only one, urban families began to treat their single girls as if they were sons.
“with the number of children restricted to only one, urban families began to treat their single girls as if they were sons.”
From The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy (2021) · cites this paper as Fong 2004
Many urban couples concentrated their resources to invest in the educations of their only children, regardless of gender.
“Many urban couples concentrated their resources to invest in the educations of their only children, regardless of gender (Fong 2004, Tsui & Rich 2002, Lu & Treiman 2008).”
From The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy (2021) · cites this paper as Fong 2004
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Jia, Y., Way, N., Ling, G., Yoshikawa, H., Chen, X., Hughes, D. L., Ke, X., & Lu, Z. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01348.x · Cited by 439 · see citing works
Choosing a higher education study abroad destination
Bodycott, P. (2009) · Journal of Research in International Education · doi:10.1177/1475240909345818 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Why Are Chinese Mothers More Controlling Than American Mothers? “My Child Is My Report Card”
Ng, F. F., Pomerantz, E. M., & Deng, C. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12102 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Jamieson, L. (2011) · Sociological Research Online · doi:10.5153/sro.2497 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Intergenerational Intimacy and Descending Familism in Rural North China
Yan, Y. (2016) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/aman.12527 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Transnational families and their children's education: China's 'study mothers' in Singapore
Huang, S., & Yeoh, B. S. A. (2005) · Global Networks · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0374.2005.00125.x · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Academic stress in Chinese schools and a proposed preventive intervention program
Zhao, X., Selman, R. L., & Haste, H. (2015) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2014.1000477 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Canetto, S. S., & Chen, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.042 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Hung, K. H., Gu, F. F., & Yim, C. K. (2007) · Journal of International Business Studies · doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400288 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Chen, X., Huang, X., Chang, L., Wang, L., & Li, D. (2010) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579410000295 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
From degendering to (re)gendering the self: Chinese youth negotiating modern womanhood
Liu, F. (2014) · Gender and Education · doi:10.1080/09540253.2013.860432 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Wang, Q., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2009) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01331.x · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Hansen, M. H., & Woronov, T. (2012) · Comparative Education · doi:10.1080/03050068.2012.733848 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Sex With Chinese Characteristics: Sexuality Research in/on 21st-Century China
Ho, P. S. Y., Jackson, S., Cao, S., & Kwok, C. (2018) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2018.1437593 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Shyness and Unsociability and Their Relations With Adjustment in Chinese and Canadian Children
Liu, J., Chen, X., Coplan, R. J., Ding, X., Zarbatany, L., & Ellis, W. E. (2015) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022114567537 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Filial nationalism among Chinese teenagers with global identities
Fong, V. L. (2004) · American Ethnologist · doi:10.1525/ae.2004.31.4.631 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Self-citationFactors associated with home-based e-working and e-shopping in Nanjing, China
Loo, B. P. Y., & Wang, B. (2017) · Transportation · doi:10.1007/s11116-017-9792-0 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy
Cai, Y., & Feng, W. (2021) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-090220-032839 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
The ‘losers’ of China’s Internet: Memes as ‘structures of feeling’ for disillusioned young netizens
Szablewicz, M. (2014) · China Information · doi:10.1177/0920203x14531538 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Shi, L. (2009) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0305741009000344 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
The Gender of Communication: Changing Expectations of Mothers and Daughters in Urban China
Evans, H. (2010) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0305741010001050 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Parent‐Child Communication Problems and the Perceived Inadequacies of Chinese Only Children
Fong, V. L. (2007) · Ethos · doi:10.1525/eth.2007.35.1.85 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationA Chinese beauty story: how college women in China negotiate beauty, body image, and mass media
Zhang, M. (2012) · Chinese Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/17544750.2012.723387 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Liu, F. (2008) · Journal of Youth Studies · doi:10.1080/13676260701800746 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
The Rise of Maternal Grandmother Child Care in Urban Chinese Families
Zhang, C., Fong, V. L., Yoshikawa, H., Way, N., Chen, X., & Lu, Z. (2019) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12598 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationCollectivism, individualism, and pragmatism in China: Implications for perceptions of mental health
Kolstad, A., & Gjesvik, N. (2014) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1363461514525220 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Raising Quality, Fostering “Creativity”: Ideologies and Practices of Education Reform in Beijing
Woronov, T. (2008) · Anthropology & Education Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1492.2008.00030.x · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Biao, X. (2014) · TRaNS Trans -Regional and -National Studies of Southeast Asia · doi:10.1017/trn.2014.3 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Work, Family, and Gendered Happiness Among Married People in Urban China
Qian, Y., & Qian, Z. (2014) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-014-0623-9 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Study and School in the Lives of Children in Migrant Families: A View from Rural Jiangxi, China
Murphy, R. (2014) · Development and Change · doi:10.1111/dech.12073 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
The Children of China's Great Migration
Murphy, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108877251 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Becoming Smarter through Smart City Pilot Projects: Experiences and Lessons from China since 2013
Wang, B., Loo, B. P. Y., & Huang, G. (2021) · Journal of Urban Technology · doi:10.1080/10630732.2021.1962695 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Fong, V. L. (2007) · City & Society · doi:10.1525/city.2007.19.1.86 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Rise of the “Priceless” Child in China
Liu, F. (2015) · Comparative Education Review · doi:10.1086/684457 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Yang, Y., Volet, S., & Mansfield, C. F. (2017) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2017.1347498 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Wang, Q., Chan, H., & Lin, L. (2012) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9760-0 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Sang subculture in post-reform China
Tan, K. C., & Cheng, S. (2020) · Global Media and China · doi:10.1177/2059436420904459 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Mattison, S. M., Scelza, B. A., & Blumenfield, T. (2014) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/aman.12125 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Agency and Power of Single Children in Multi-Generational Families in Urban Xiamen, China
Goh, E. C. L., & Kuczynski, L. (2009) · Culture & Psychology · doi:10.1177/1354067x09344881 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Social Pressure and Unfulfilled Dreams Among Chinese and Belgian Parents
Wuyts, D., Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., & Soenens, B. (2015) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022115603125 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Sexual Infidelity in China: Prevalence and Gender-Specific Correlates
Zhang, N., Parish, W. L., Huang, Y., & Pan, S. (2012) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9930-x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
That Obscure Object of Global Health
Fassin, D. (2012) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9780822395478-007 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Chiang, S., & Bai, S. (2022) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12836 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Pathways to homeownership among young professionals in urban China: The role of family resources
Or, T.-M. (2017) · Urban Studies · doi:10.1177/0042098017714212 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Parenting for Success: The Value of Children and Intensive Parenting in Post-Reform China
Gu, X. (2020) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-020-09746-4 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Making Class and Gender: (Market) Socialist Enframing of Traders in Ho Chi Minh City
Leshkowich, A. M. (2011) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2011.01330.x · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Liu, R. X. (2016) · Sociological Inquiry · doi:10.1111/soin.12123 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
The One-Child Policy in Shanghai: Acceptance and Internalization
Nie, Y., & Wyman, R. J. (2005) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2005.00067.x · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Xiao, S. (2016) · The Journal of Chinese Sociology · doi:10.1186/s40711-016-0037-y · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Student migration and polymedia: mainland Chinese students’ communication media use in Hong Kong
Peng, Y. (2016) · Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies · doi:10.1080/1369183x.2016.1194743 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Wang, J., Liu, L., & Wang, L. (2013) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12101 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The Practice of Mothering: An Introduction
Barlow, K., & Chapin, B. L. (2010) · Ethos · doi:10.1111/j.1548-1352.2010.01153.x · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The birth of nanke (men's medicine) in China: The making of the subject of desire
Zhang, E. Y. (2007) · American Ethnologist · doi:10.1525/ae.2007.34.3.491 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Yamamoto, Y., Li, J., & Bempechat, J. (2022) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2022.2094383 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“As in the U.S., teachers organize teacher-parent meetings, where families are invited to visit the school to discuss children’s school lives and academic progress (Fong, 2004; Ho & Staub, 2018; Pang, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluential“Purchasing hope”: the consumption of children’s education in urban China
Lin, X. (2019) · The Journal of Chinese Sociology · doi:10.1186/s40711-019-0099-8 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“My Mother Wants Me to Jiaru-haomen (Marry Into a Rich and Powerful Family)!”
To, S. (2015) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244014567057 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Coping With Parental Pressure to Get Married: Perspectives From Chinese “Leftover Women”
Gui, T. (2022) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x211071053 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Liu, R. X., Lin, W., & Chen, Z. (2009) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.07.007 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
‘Save the children!’: Governing left-behind children through family in China’s Great Migration
Gu, X. (2021) · Current Sociology · doi:10.1177/0011392120985874 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Governing the middle-class family in urban China: educational reform and questions of choice
Crabb, M. W. (2010) · Economy and Society · doi:10.1080/03085147.2010.486216 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Children's Relative Influence in Family Decision Making in Urban China
Flurry, L. A., & Veeck, A. (2008) · Journal of Macromarketing · doi:10.1177/0276146708327635 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
How parents help children with homework in China: Narratives across the life span
Kim, S.-W., & Fong, V. L. (2013) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-013-9284-7 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationGendered Division of Digital Labor in Parenting: A Qualitative Study in Urban China
Peng, Y. (2022) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-021-01267-w · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Economic Reform and Intergenerational Relationships in China
Ikels, C. (2006) · Oxford Development Studies · doi:10.1080/13600810601045619 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Tu, M. (2016) · The Journal of Chinese Sociology · doi:10.1186/s40711-016-0036-z · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Parent‐driven divorce and individualisation among urban Chinese youth
Yan, Y. (2013) · International Social Science Journal · doi:10.1111/issj.12048 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Filial Daughter? Filial Son? How China’s Young Urban Elite Negotiate Intergenerational Obligations
Eklund, L. (2018) · NORA - Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research · doi:10.1080/08038740.2018.1534887 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Liu, Y., & Jiang, Q. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.608995 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Discourses and practices of child-rearing in China: The bio-power of parenting in Beijing
Binah-Pollak, A. (2014) · China Information · doi:10.1177/0920203x13517617 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The impact of China’s one-child policy on intergenerational and gender relations
Hu, Y., & Shi, X. (2018) · Contemporary Social Science · doi:10.1080/21582041.2018.1448941 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Thornham, S., & Pengpeng, F. (2010) · Feminist Media Studies · doi:10.1080/14680771003672320 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
The Temporal Experience of Chinese Students Abroad and the Present Human Condition
Hansen, A. S. (2015) · Journal of Current Chinese Affairs · doi:10.1177/186810261504400303 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Intergenerational Transmission of Family Property and Family Management in Urban China
Wang, D. (2010) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0305741010001049 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Anthropology, China, and the Chinese Century
Pieke, F. N. (2014) · Annual Review of Anthropology · doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-102313-030149 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Standardized forms of Vietnamese selfhood: An ethnographic genealogy of documentation
Leshkowich, A. M. (2014) · American Ethnologist · doi:10.1111/amet.12065 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“It's All for the Child”: The Discontents of Middle-class Chinese Parenting and Migration to Europe
Beck, F., & Nyíri, P. (2022) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0305741022000169 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Chen, Y. C., & Li, J. A. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118374085.ch4 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Li, M. (2022) · Journal of Family Communication · doi:10.1080/15267431.2021.2019742 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Multileveled citizenship and citizenship education: experiences of students in China's Beijing
Pan, S. (2011) · Citizenship Studies · doi:10.1080/13621025.2011.549730 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Credentialism and Career Aspirations: How Urban Chinese Youth Chose High School and College Majors
Kim, S. W., Brown, K.-E., & Fong, V. L. (2016) · Comparative Education Review · doi:10.1086/685554 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationIn Search of the Confucian Family
Wang, Y. C. (2014) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558414538318 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Goodkind, D. M. (2015) · Population Studies · doi:10.1080/00324728.2015.1103565 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Battling the Tiger Mother: Pre‐School Reform and Conflicting Norms of Parenthood in Singapore
Bach, D., & Christensen, S. (2016) · Children & Society · doi:10.1111/chso.12162 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
‘I am a traditional but caring father’: narratives of paternal masculinity in urban Chinese families
Wang, L., & Keizer, R. (2024) · Journal of Gender Studies · doi:10.1080/09589236.2023.2300426 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Children, which are still often the ‘only hope’, are the centre of family life, and all family members, including grandparents, are doing their best to work towards the common goal of raising ‘a perfect child’ (Fong, 2004).”
Privileged Daughters? Gendered Mobility among Highly Educated Chinese Female Migrants in the UK
Tu, M., & Xie, K. (2020) · Social Inclusion · doi:10.17645/si.v8i2.2675 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Liu, F. (2008) · Young · doi:10.1177/110330880801600404 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Contributions of Anthropology to the Study of Adolescence
Schlegel, A. E., & Hewlett, B. L. (2011) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00729.x · Cited by 36 · see citing works
China's Skewed Sex Ratio and the One-Child Policy
Loh, C., & Remick, E. J. (2015) · The China Quarterly · doi:10.1017/s0305741015000375 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Tan, T. X., Yi, Z., Camras, L. A., Cheng, K., Li, Z., Sun, Y., & Chen, N. (2021) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-021-09650-x · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Love, Marriage, and Intimate Citizenship in Contemporary China and India: An introduction
Donner, H., & Santos, G. (2016) · Modern Asian Studies · doi:10.1017/s0026749x16000032 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Chiang, Y. (2018) · Comparative Education Review · doi:10.1086/699566 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Technology of Self, Technology of Power. Volunteering as Encounter in Guangzhou, China
Fleischer, F. (2011) · Ethnos · doi:10.1080/00141844.2011.565126 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
(Extended) Family Car, Filial Consumer-Citizens
Zhang, J. (2016) · Modern China · doi:10.1177/0097700416645138 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Chinese Fathers in the Twentieth Century: Changing Roles as Parents and as Men
Li, X. (2018) · NORA - Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research · doi:10.1080/08038740.2018.1534138 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Jiang, S. (2021) · Comparative Education Review · doi:10.1086/712053 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
‘She is Too Young for These Chores’ — Is Housework Taking a Back Seat in Urban Chinese Childhood?
Goh, E. C. L., & Kuczynski, L. (2012) · Children & Society · doi:10.1111/j.1099-0860.2012.00470.x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
A Qualitative Study of Urban, Chinese Middle-Class Mothers’ Parenting for Adolescents
Chen‐Bouck, L., Duan, C., & Patterson, M. M. (2016) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558416630815 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
New intergenerational contracts in the making? – The experience of urban China
Zhong, X., & Li, B. (2017) · Journal of Asian Public Policy · doi:10.1080/17516234.2017.1290864 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Metacognitive Effort Regulation across Cultures
Ackerman, R., Binah-Pollak, A., & Lauterman, T. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11090171 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
- Authors
- Fong, V. L.
- Corresponding author
- Fong, Vanessa L.
- Venue
- Stanford University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Stanford University Press
- Published
- 2004-02-17
- OpenAlex
- W4301657077
- Cited by
- 607
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 31
- FWCI
- 7.76
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Stanford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Demographic Trends and Gender Preferences
- Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › China's Socioeconomic Reforms and Governance
- Keywords
- one-child policy, only children, fertility transition, family relationships, intergenerational support, elderly care, social competition, parental involvement, youth values, China
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
