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Cited by 7Archaeological Research and ProtectionArchaeology and Cultural HeritageArchaeological and Geological Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 33 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 21 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

A new view of hillforts in the Andes: expanding coverage with systematic imagery survey

Open access
Arkush, Elizabeth, Kohut, Lauren E., Housse, Romuald, Smith, Ryan D., Wernke, Steven A.·2024·Antiquity
DOI 10.15184/aqy.2023.178
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Abstract

In the Andean highlands, hilltop fortifications known as pukaras are common. Dating predominantly to the Late Intermediate Period (AD 1000–1450), pukaras are important to archaeological characterisations of a political landscape shaped by conflict but the distribution of these key sites is not well understood. Here, the authors employ systematic satellite imagery survey to provide a contiguous picture of pukara distribution on an inter-regional scale covering 151 103km 2 in the south-central highlands of Peru. They highlight the effectiveness of such survey at identifying pukaras and capturing regional variability in size and residential occupation, and the results demonstrate that satellite surveys of high-visibility sites can tackle research questions at larger scales of analysis than have previously been possible.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Systematic satellite imagery survey across 151,103 km² of the south-central Andean highlands identified 1,249 high-confidence pukaras, showing they were broadly distributed but regionally variable. The authors argue this approach complements field research, while yielding a minimum count rather than a complete census.

Key findings

The combined dataset contains 1,249 high-confidence pukaras (1,210 identified through satellite survey and 39 from field visits or published sources), plus 211 low-confidence pukaras; non-residential pukaras were surprisingly frequent (n = 567) compared with residential pukaras (n = 682).

  • Getis-Ord Gi* hot-spot analysis (15 km fixed-distance band) found large discrete clusters in the northern and southern Titicaca Basin, a separate hot spot in the altiplano to the south-east, and smaller hot spots in the Colca Valley and southern Cuzco; non-residential pukaras formed smaller, more discrete clusters.
  • Size varied regionally: 76% of the 74 large and very large pukaras (>20 ha) were in the Lupaca-Pacajes survey area. In Zone A, median pukara size was 2.99 ha, no site exceeded 20 ha, and 60% were residential; in Zone B, median size was 8 ha and 86% were non-residential.
  • Systematic survey outperformed ad hoc methods: an earlier non-systematic dataset missed 166 of 376 (44.1%) high-confidence pukaras; in the 20,580 km² overlap between GeoPACHA and Housse-Mouquet surveys, 95 of 193 (49.2%) high-confidence pukaras were identified independently by both surveys.

Methods

Three independent and partly overlapping systematic satellite imagery surveys using approximately 0.5 m imagery: two GeoPACHA surveys (a south-western complete imagery survey and a north-eastern pukara-focused survey) and the Housse-Mouquet Lupaca-Pacajes survey covering 31,888 km² in 5 × 5 km cells.

  • GeoPACHA used 0.02° grid cells subdivided for fine-grain tracking; the north-eastern survey refined methods iteratively and excluded cells with mean elevation above 4,367 masl. The Lupaca-Pacajes survey inventoried known sites, divided the area into two zones, and ranked potential pukaras into low-confidence, high-confidence non-residential, and high-confidence residential classes.
  • After merging datasets, each pukara locus was assigned a confidence score of 0–4 based on location, defensive architecture, and residential architecture; loci below 1.5 were removed and 1.5–2 coded low confidence. Analysis used Getis-Ord Gi* hot-spot analysis with a 7.3 km hexagonal grid and 15 km fixed-distance band, supplemented by targeted field visits to 158 sites over the years, including 29 ground-truthed in 2022.

Limitations

The paper states that satellite survey cannot detect every pukara: thick vegetation obscures visibility, naturally defensive landforms without substantial built defences cannot be identified unless they show residential or other architecture, and pukaras on low cultivated hills or mesa tops without visible residential architecture are sometimes missed. The dataset is therefore a minimum count, not a complete census, and cannot capture less visible site types or complete settlement patterns.

  • The confidence-score system is stated to bias toward visible residential architecture and built defences over natural defences. Ground-truthing was limited to 29 sites, and two residential sites with dense surface ceramics but no remaining architecture were misclassified.
  • Evident from the text: detection is variable across surveys—only 49.2% of high-confidence pukaras in the overlap were identified independently by both surveys, and comparisons with pedestrian surveys missed several known sites—so completeness and comparability across areas remain constrained.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.15184/aqy.2023.178

Cites

33 of 33 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 21 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingreasoning

    Even in regions with excellent visibility, naturally defensive landforms without substantial built defences could not be identified as pukaras from satellite imagery alone unless the site contained visible signs of residential use or other architecture.

    “Even in regions with excellent visibility, naturally defensive landforms (e.g.mesas surrounded by cliffs) without substantial built defences could not be identified as pukaras from satellite imagery alone unless the site contained visible signs of residential use or other architecture.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Pukaras are densely concentrated in places such as the Lake Titicaca Basin and the Colca Valley where previous field surveys had documented defensive settlement patterns.

    “Pukaras are densely concentrated in places such as the Lake Titicaca Basin and the Colca Valley where previous field surveys had documented defensive settlement patterns (Hyslop 1976;Stanish et al. 1997;Frye & de la Vega 2005;Arkush 2011;Neira Avendaño 2011[1961]; Wernke 2013; Kohut 2016), but our satellite survey also found substantial concentrations of pukaras in many other parts of the south-”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hyslop 1976

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Stanish et al. 1997 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites Arkush 2011 source
  • Findingown data

    Comparison of satellite survey to full-coverage pedestrian surveys within the GeoPACHA analysis area found that smaller pukaras on low cultivated hills and mesa-top pukaras without visible residential architecture were sometimes missed.

    “We compared the results of our satellite survey to full-coverage pedestrian surveys that fell within the GeoPACHA analysis area (the Housse-Mouquet survey integrated known sites from the outset) and found that smaller pukaras on low cultivated hills and mesa-top pukaras without visible residential architecture were sometimes missed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A second important finding is the spatial patterning of pukara variability in size, defensibility, residential occupation, and other traits.

    “A second important finding is the spatial patterning of pukara variability in size, defensibility, residential occupation, and other traits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The satellite survey found substantial concentrations of pukaras in many other parts of the south-central Andes beyond previously documented areas.

    “but our satellite survey also found substantial concentrations of pukaras in many other parts of the south-central Andes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 37
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 15

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    In low-hill contexts, residential architecture has often disappeared, and defensive walls have been incorporated as terrace walls.

    “Here, residential architecture has often disappeared, and defensive walls have been incorporated as terrace walls.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    Repurposed or modified walls are harder to distinguish, although their long contiguous and concentric forms may actually be easier to identify from above than in ground survey.

    “Repurposed or modified walls are harder to distinguish, although their long contiguous and concentric forms may actually be easier to identify from above than in ground survey.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The final combined dataset includes 1249 high-confidence pukaras (1210 identified through satellite survey and 39 not clearly visible in satellite imagery but identified through field visits or published sources) and 211 low-confidence pukaras.

    “The final combined dataset includes 1249 high-confidence pukaras (1210 identified through satellite survey and an additional 39 not clearly visible in satellite imagery but identified through field visits by the authors or in published sources) and 211 low-confidence pukaras (Figures 3 & 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Visual inspection of the results suggests that hilltop fortifications are strongly concentrated in parts of the Lake Titicaca Basin, with other concentrations in the altiplano and upper drainages to the south-east and north-west.

    “Visual inspection of the results suggests that hilltop fortifications are strongly concentrated in parts of the Lake Titicaca Basin, with other concentrations in the altiplano (highland plateau) and upper drainages to the south-east and north-west.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In a 580 km2 area in the northern Titicaca Basin near Arapa and Taraco covered by pedestrian survey in 2002, satellite survey identified 10 of the 14 pukaras recorded, with one coded as low confidence.

    “For example, a 580km 2 area in the northern Titicaca Basin near Arapa and Taraco was covered in a pedestrian survey in 2002 (Stanish et al. 2018).Our satellite survey identified 10 of the 14 pukaras recorded in Stanish's survey, with one coded as low confidence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stanish et al. 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    There are areas where pukaras appear to be absent or infrequent, including extremely high-elevation zones, expansive plains where defensible landforms are largely absent, and other areas where the absence of pukaras is harder to explain.

    “There are also areas where pukaras appear to be absent or infrequent, including extremely highelevation zones, expansive plains where defensible landforms are largely absent, and other areas where the absence of pukaras is harder to explain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    In the Tacna precordillera areas surveyed in the field by Housse (2021:182), vegetation and low walls obscured sites, and only three of six pukaras were identified in satellite survey.

    “In the areas of the Tacna precordillera surveyed in the field by Housse (2021: 182), vegetation and low walls obscured sites, and only three of six pukaras were identified in satellite survey.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Housse (2021: 182)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The dataset presents strong patterning in the density of pukaras across regions, including clusters and gaps, and in certain pukara characteristics.

    “The dataset also presents strong patterning both in the density of pukaras across regions, including clusters and gaps, and in certain pukara characteristics (see below).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The authors' results both confirm and refute current understanding of the distribution and density of pukaras.

    “Our results both confirm and refute current understanding of the distribution and density of pukaras.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Of the four pukaras missed in the Arapa-Taraco comparison, one was defended almost entirely by cliffs and another was on a low cultivated hill.

    “Of the missing four, one was defended almost entirely by cliffs and another was on a low cultivated hill.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    The confidence-score system reflects a built-in bias: loci with visible residential architecture scored higher than those without, and those with built defences scored higher than those with natural defences.

    “This built-in bias is reflected in the confidence-score system in Table 1.Loci with visible residential architecture were more clearly archaeological sites and scored higher than those without, and those with built defences (walls and ditches) scored higher than those with natural defences (cliffs).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The hot-spot analysis shows large but discrete high-confidence hot spots in the northern and southern Titicaca Basin, a separate hot spot in the altiplano to the south-east, and smaller hot spots to the north-west in the Colca Valley and provinces of southern Cuzco.

    “This result (Figure 5) shows large but discrete high-confidence hot spots in the northern and southern Titicaca Basin, a separate hot spot in the altiplano to the south-east, and smaller hot spots to the north-west in the Colca Valley and provinces of southern Cuzco.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Pukaras coded as non-residential are surprisingly frequent; they are present throughout the study region in only slightly smaller numbers (n=567) than residential pukaras (n=682).

    “Pukaras coded as nonresidential are surprisingly frequent; they are present throughout the study region in only slightly smaller numbers (n = 567) than residential pukaras (n = 682; Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The project involved systematic imagery survey of 151,103 km2 of the southern Andean highlands and a registry of 1249 high-confidence pukaras identified in satellite imagery.

    “The result is systematic imagery survey of 151 103km 2 of the southern Andean highlands and a registry of 1249 high-confidence pukaras identified in satellite imagery.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Residential sites in Zone B, though scarce, are even larger on average than non-residential pukaras.

    “Residential sites, though scarce, are even larger on average than non-residential pukaras.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given

    Zone B non-residential sites are built on low relief but locally prominent hills and extend over tens or even hundreds of hectares.

    “These latter sites are built on low relief but locally prominent hills and extend over tens or even hundreds of hectares.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Zone A is characterised by a high density of relatively small pukaras: median size is 2.99ha and no site exceeds 20ha.

    “Zone A is characterised by a high density of relatively small pukaras: median size is 2.99ha and no site exceeds 20ha.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In Zone B, almost all the sites are very large non-residential pukaras located on small hills on either side of the heavily cultivated Viacha Valley; no sites were found beyond this area in the surrounding highlands.

    “Here, almost all the sites are very large nonresidential pukaras located on small hills on either side of the heavily cultivated Viacha Valley; no sites were found beyond this area in the surrounding highlands.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Non-residential pukaras have a slightly higher average elevation and are more commonly located further from the lake.

    “In contrast, non-residential pukaras, which have a slightly higher average elevation, are more commonly located further from the lake”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Pukaras in Zone B are much larger, with a median size of 8ha, and 86 per cent are non-residential.

    “By contrast, pukaras in Zone B are much larger, with a median size of 8ha, and 86 per cent are non-residential.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Small pukaras are concentrated around the northern margins of Lake Titicaca and areas in the southern provinces of Cuzco located in the northwestern part of the survey area.

    “Small pukaras, by contrast, are concentrated around the northern margins of Lake Titicaca and areas in the southern provinces of Cuzco located in the northwestern part of the survey area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    Pukaras are densest in the former area, with its less rugged terrain and access to lake and agricultural resources.

    “Pukaras are densest in the former area, with its less rugged terrain and access to lake and agricultural resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Most regions where pukaras are found display a mix of both residential and non-residential pukaras, but their prevalence and size vary in important ways.

    “Most regions where pukaras are found display a mix of both residential and non-residential pukaras, but their prevalence and size vary in important ways (Figure 6).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given

    Zone A straddles a limit between the highlands of the altiplano and the lowlands of the eastern Andean slopes.

    “Zone A straddles a limit between the highlands of the altiplano and the lowlands of the eastern Andean slopes (Figure 9).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Satellite survey cannot capture less visible kinds of sites, so complete settlement patterns are not achievable through this method.

    “Of course, satellite survey cannot capture less visible kinds of sites, so complete settlement patterns are not achievable through this method.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The limitations of satellite survey must be counterbalanced by the immense and cost-effective geographic coverage achievable.

    “Overall, the limitations of satellite survey must be counterbalanced by the immense and cost-effective geographic coverage achievable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisenone given

    All surveys focused on highland areas above 2000m above sea level where pukaras are more frequent.

    “All surveys focused on highland areas above 2000m above sea level (masl) where pukaras are more frequent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    In the south-central highlands, ceramic chronologies and radiocarbon dates place pukaras overwhelmingly in the Late Intermediate Period (AD 1000-1450), especially after AD 1300, with a few examples of earlier Formative to Early Intermediate or later Late Horizon occupation.

    “For the south-central highlands, ceramic chronologies and radiocarbon dates place these sites overwhelmingly in the Late Intermediate Period (hereafter LIP; AD 1000-1450), especially after AD 1300 (Arkush et al. in press); with a few examples of pukaras having additional earlier, Formative to Early Intermediate (c.500 BC-AD 200), or later, Late Horizon (hereafter LH; AD 1450-1532), occupation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Arkush et al. in press

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    To identify and remove false positives, each pukara locus was systematically assigned a confidence score between zero and four based on location, presence of defensive architecture and presence of residential architecture.

    “To identify and remove false positives, after the conclusion of all surveys and the merging of the GeoPACHA and Housse-Mouquet datasets, each 'pukara' locus was systematically assigned a confidence score between zero and four based on location, presence of defensive architecture and presence of residential architecture (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    High-resolution satellite imagery of approximately 0.5m is now widely available and has previously been used to detect archaeological features.

    “High-resolution (approximately 0.5m) satellite imagery is now widely available and has previously been used to detect archaeological features (see Liang et al. 2018;Luo et al. 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Liang et al. 2018 source
    • cites Luo et al. 2018 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Regional editors with field experience of pukaras re-examined each surveyed cell to catch false negatives, review loci and attributes, and remove false positives.

    “Regional editors who had field experience of pukaras then re-examined each surveyed cell to catch false negatives, review loci and attributes, and remove false positives.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Satellite survey inevitably can result in a non-trivial volume of false positives, in this case non-sites or sites incorrectly identified as pukaras.

    “Satellite survey inevitably can result in a non-trivial volume of false positives: in this case non-sites or sites incorrectly identified as pukaras.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Recent field research on several Late Intermediate Period societies has failed to find evidence for coherent, well-integrated regional polities.

    “although recent field research on several LIP societies has failed to find evidence for coherent, well-integrated regional polities (Sillar & Dean 2002;Frye & de la Vega 2005;Bauer & Kellett 2010;Arkush 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Sillar & Dean 2002 source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites Frye & de la Vega 2005 source
    • cites Bauer & Kellett 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Satellite survey is a complementary method to field research, providing broader contextual framing and generating insights and research questions that would not otherwise be possible.

    “We see it as a complementary method to field research, providing broader contextual framing and generating insights and research questions that would not otherwise be possible.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Each GeoPACHA cell was reviewed by at least two surveyors.

    “As a result, each cell was reviewed by at least two surveyors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Researchers have previously used aerial and satellite imagery to detect pukaras on a limited and ad hoc basis, but it has been difficult to ensure systematic coverage.

    “Researchers have previously used aerial and satellite imagery to detect pukaras on a limited and ad hoc basis (e.g.Arkush 2011;Brown Vega et al. 2011;Kohut 2016); however, it has been difficult for researchers to ensure systematic coverage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Arkush 2011 source
    • cites Brown Vega et al. 2011 source
    • cites Kohut 2016

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The authors are confident that the dataset has identified almost all pukaras with anthropogenic defensive features visible in high-resolution (approximately 0.5m) satellite imagery and is representative of their overall distribution.

    “We are confident that the dataset has identified almost all pukaras with anthropogenic defensive features visible in high resolution (approximately 0.5m) satellite imagery and is representative of their overall distribution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Over the years, including projects before these surveys, the authors collectively made field visits to 158 of these sites, including detailed architectural mapping, artefact collections and excavations.

    “Over the years, including projects before these surveys took place, we have collectively made field visits to 158 of these sites, including detailed architectural mapping, artefact collections and excavations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The dataset obtained from combined satellite surveys is not a complete census of every pukara in the surveyed region; it is a minimum count showing that pukaras are extremely prevalent.

    “In short, the dataset obtained from combined satellite surveys is certainly not a complete census of every pukara in the surveyed region.Instead, it is a minimum count, showing that they are extremely prevalent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Some small non-residential pukaras are associated with residential pukaras and appear to be watch posts, but many do not fit this description, suggesting a diversity of functions.

    “Some small non-residential pukaras are associated with residential pukaras and appear to be watch posts, but many do not fit this description, suggesting a diversity of functions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Loci with confidence scores below 1.5 were removed from the dataset, while those scoring 1.5-2 were coded as low confidence.

    “Loci with confidence scores below 1.5 were removed from the dataset, while those scoring 1.5-2 were coded as low confidence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The strength of this project lies in the co-ordination of data collection and validation across a large team of regional experts, experienced archaeologists and trained undergraduate students, including those working on GeoPACHA.

    “The strength of this project lies in the co-ordination of data collection and validation across a large team of regional experts, experienced archaeologists and trained undergraduate students, including those working on GeoPACHA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The relative scarcity of residential pukaras and the prevalence of large non-residential pukaras with low, unostentatious walls seems to indicate a different logic to pukara-building that is not clearly tied to differences in domestic economy.

    “The relative scarcity of residential pukaras and the prevalence of large non-residential pukaras with low, unostentatious walls seems to indicate a different logic to pukara-building that is not clearly tied to differences in domestic economy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The exceptionally high visibility-and high intervisibility-of the Viacha Valley sites may suggest distinctive functions in this area, whether to appropriate and assert claims to territory, send visual signals or monitor potential enemies.

    “Meanwhile, the exceptionally high visibility-and high intervisibility-of the Viacha Valley sites (Figure 10) may suggest distinctive functions in this area, whether to appropriate and assert claims to territory, send visual signals or monitor potential enemies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    Non-residential pukaras likely had distinct defensive purposes and interacted with local geographies and residential pukaras in different ways.

    “Non-residential pukaras likely had distinct defensive purposes and interacted with local geographies and residential pukaras in different ways.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All ground-checked pukaras are considered high confidence.

    “All ground-checked pukaras are considered high confidence (figure by authors).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The variability of pukaras in size, defensibility, residential occupation and other traits is well documented.

    “The variability of pukaras in size, defensibility, residential occupation and other traits is well documented (e.g.Covey 2008;Arkush 2011;Kohut 2016Kohut , 2022;;McCool 2017;Housse 2021)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Covey 2008 source
    • cites Arkush 2011 source
    • cites Kohut 2016, 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

47 of 47

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Pukaras are a common and widespread category of site in the Andean highlands, especially the Andean sierra.

    “This is a common and widespread category of site, especially in the Andean sierra.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The great majority of pukaras investigated in field studies in the south-central highlands date to the LIP.

    “The great majority of pukaras investigated in field studies in the south-central highlands date to the LIP.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The pukara dataset here dates to the LIP.

    “If this holds true for the pukara dataset here, then our survey indicates how extremely prevalent a concern for defence was during this phase.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many fundamental questions about the pukara phenomenon in the highland Andes remain unanswered despite nearly two decades of close archaeological investigation.

    “Many fundamental questions about the pukara phenomenon in the highland Andes remain unanswered despite nearly two decades of close archaeological investigation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Prior to this research, it was impossible to ascertain the extent to which local defensive settlement patterns were representative of the wider pukara phenomenon, or of more distinct localised processes.

    “Prior to this research, it was impossible to ascertain the extent to which local defensive settlement patterns were representative of the wider pukara phenomenon, or of more distinct localised processes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Traditional field methods provide a more limited lens for studying large-scale phenomena.

    “These gaps in our knowledge reveal broader challenges associated with studying large-scale phenomena through the more limited lens provided by the scale of traditional field methods.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 29 ground-truthed sites are representative of all classified sites for assessing classification reliability.

    “Our ground-truthing found that these 29 sites had been correctly classified, except for two residential sites with dense surface ceramics but no remaining architecture.”
7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conclusion counts ground-only sites as identified in satellite imagery

    Minor

    The conclusion says all 1249 high-confidence pukaras were identified in satellite imagery, but the methods report that only 1210 were identified that way; the remaining 39 came from field visits or published sources.

1 of 1

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 34 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Tarragó, 2000, Los pueblos originarios y la Conquista, Nueva Historia Argentina Tomo I, 257
  2. Capoche, 1959, Relación general de la villa imperial de Potosí, un capítulo inédito en la historia del nuevo mundo
  3. Anderson, A.M. 2014. ‘More than forts’: a study of high elevation enclosures within the Pambamarca fortress complex, Ecuador . Unpublished PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo.
  4. Neira Avendaño, M. 2011[1961]. Los Collaguas. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Edición y Prólogo de Félix Palacios Ríos.
  5. Hyslop, J. 1976. An archaeological investigation of the Lupaqa Kingdom and its origins . Unpublished PhD dissertation, Columbia University.
  6. Housse, R. 2021. Fortification et territorialité entre la côte pacifique et l'altiplano méridional andin durant l'Intermédiaire récent (1000–1450 apr . J.C.). Unpublished PhD dissertation, École Doctorale d'archéologie 112 – Université Paris 1 – Panthéon Sorbonne.
  7. Bonnier, 1981, Las ruinas de Tantamayo: vestigios de una ocupación tardía (Provincia de Huamalíes, Departamento de Huánuco), Boletín de Lima, 14, 38
  8. Stanish, 2018, The northern Titicaca Basin survey: Huancané-Putina

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Metadata

Authors
Arkush, E., Kohut, L. E., Housse, R., Smith, R. D., & Wernke, S. A.
Affiliations
  • University of Pittsburgh (US)
  • Vanderbilt University (US)
Corresponding author
Arkush, Elizabeth
ORCID
Venue
Antiquity
Publisher
Antiquity Publications
Published
2023-12-18
Volume
98
Issue
397
Pages
172-192
ISSN
  • 0003-598X (ISSN-L)
  • 1745-1744
DOI
10.15184/aqy.2023.178
OpenAlex
W4389912521
Semantic Scholar
eae4c5310fae9f0422cdf6ac725334ffdc0ffdea
Cited by
7
References
34
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1
FWCI
3.81
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
Antiquity (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • University of Pittsburgh (CRDF "Spatial logic and settlement organization in)
  • American Council of Learned Societies (Digital Extension Grant: Extending Geospatial Plat)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Archeology › Archaeological Research and Protection
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Archaeology and Cultural Heritage
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Archaeological and Geological Studies
Keywords
Pukara, hillfort, Late Intermediate Period, Andean highlands, site distribution, political landscape, conflict

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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