Responding to Subliminal Cues: Do If-Then Plans Facilitate Action Preparation and Initiation without Conscious Intent?
Abstract
Forming implementation intentions (“If I encounter cue X, then I will perform behavior Y!”) is postulated to trigger action initiation without further conscious intent once the specified cue is encountered (Gollwitzer, 1999). In two experiments using an injustice paradigm or a categorization task, critical situations (specified in the if-component) were subliminally presented and it was tested whether these situations influenced the preparation (Study 1) and initiation (Study 2) of the planned goal-directed behavior (specified in the then-component). After the subliminal presentation of the critical situations, implementation intention participants showed stronger action preparation and a faster action initiation, as compared to control participants (Study 1) who had not formed any goal intention at all, and compared to participants (Studies 1 and 2) who had only formed goal intentions. These findings suggest that forming implementation intentions leads to automatic action initiation without further conscious intent.
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Due to this link, the action is executed immediately, efficiently, independent of conscious intent and with reduced controllability.
“Due to this link, the action is executed immediately, efficiently, independent of conscious intent and with reduced controllability (Bayer et al., 2009; Brandstätter et al., 2001; Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997; Wieber & Sassenberg, 2006).”
From The effectiveness of implementation intentions in children: A systematic review and meta‐analysis (2026) · cites this paper as Bayer et al., 2009
Cites
Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493 · Cited by 5,478 · see citing works
Self-citationImplementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38002-1 · Cited by 3,236 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Numerous studies have shown that the attainment of goals strongly benefits from the formation of implementation intentions (for summaries, see Achtziger & Gollwitzer, 2008; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationImplementation intentions and effective goal pursuit.
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Brandstätter, V. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.186 · Cited by 1,343 · see citing works
Self-citationHow do implementation intentions promote goal attainment? A test of component processes
Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.02.001 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Implementation Intentions Facilitate Response Inhibition in Children with ADHD
Gawrilow, C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-007-9150-1 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
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The automatic component of habit in health behavior: Habit as cue-contingent automaticity.
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Toli, A., Webb, T. L., & Hardy, G. E. (2016) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12086 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Hoch, E., Scheiter, K., & Stalbovs, K. (2023) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12620 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Bayer, U. C., Achtziger, A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Moskowitz, G. B.
- Affiliations
- University of Konstanz (DE)
- Lehigh University (US)
- Venue
- Social Cognition
- Publisher
- Guilford Publications
- Published
- 2009-04
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 183-201
- ISSN
- 0278-016X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2150542385
- Cited by
- 207
- References
- 5
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 53 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 14.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Social Cognition (publishedVersion)
- KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Psychology of Social Influence
- Keywords
- implementation intentions, subliminal cues, action preparation, action initiation, automatism, goal-directed behavior, if-then planning, categorization task
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