Evidence Accumulation and the Moment of Recognition: Dissociating Perceptual Recognition Processes Using fMRI

“As a means of accommodating more diverse patterns of data, UPGMA was developed (Eisen et al., 1998).”

“, 2003), attention for action (Posner et al., 1988; Posner and Petersen, 1990; Bush et al., 1998), response conflict/competition (Bush et al.”

“, 1998), response conflict/competition (Bush et al., 1998; Botvinick et al., 1999; Botvinick et al., 2001), confidence (Fleck et al.”

“, geons) provide a higher degree of object level information than straight lines (Biederman, 1987).”

“…proven highly effective in describing human performance in recognition memory, lexical decisions, economic decisions, and sensory discriminations (Ratcliff, 1978; Busemeyer, 1985; Bundesen, 1990; Nosofsky and Palmeri, 1997; Ratcliff and Rouder, 1998; Logan and Gordon, 2001; Ratcliff et al.,…”

“…regions thought to compare category evidence against a particular decision criterion (Heekeren et al. 2004; Ho et al. 2009; Philiastides and Sajda 2007; Philiastides et al. 2006; Pleger et al. 2006; Ploran et al. 2007; Thielscher and Pessoa 2007; Tosoni et al. 2008; but see McKeef and Tong 2007).”

“…between evidence accumulation and moment of recognition responses across regions throughout the brain including both control and sensory systems ((Ploran et al. 2007, 2011; Wheeler et al. 2008); see also (Kayser et al. 2010; Tremel and Wheeler 2015) for additional work on evidence accumulation).”

“, 2004), moment of recognition (Ploran et al., 2007), PDM (Thielscher and Pessoa, 2007), feeling of knowing (Kikyo et al.”

“Sensitivity to probability reflects an executive function/cognitive control account which is applicable not just to memory judgments, but to perceptual decision-making in general, as indicated by the study of Ploran et al. (2007).”

“…(Dosenbach, Fair, Cohen, Schlaggar, & Petersen, 2008; Dosenbach et al., 2007; Gee, Ipata, Gottlieb, Bisley, & Goldberg, 2008; Gottlieb, Kusunoki, & Goldberg, 2005; Hillyard, Vogel, & Luck, 1998; Ploran et al., 2007; Reynolds, Alborzian, & Stoner, 2003; Yantis & Jonides, 1990; Yantis et al., 2002).”

“More specifically, increased activity in the area has been associated with the conscious phase of object recognition, during which subjects have the aware feeling of knowing the stimulus to which they are exposed (Nelson et al., 2010; Ploran et al., 2007).”

“Recent fMRI experiments demonstrated the buildup of activity in artificially slowed-down recognition (Ploran et al., 2007) and antisaccade tasks (Medendorp, Goltz, Crawford, & Vilis, 2005).”

“Both saccades and visual perception are thought to depend on rise-to-threshold decision mechanisms, in which the moment a threshold is reached determines when a saccade occurs or when perception is attained (Gold and Shadlen, 2000; Reddi and Carpenter, 2000; Carpenter, 2004; Gold and Shadlen, 2007; Ploran et al., 2007…”

“The increase in the activity of INSs at the moment of a perceptual decision during an image recognition task (Ploran et al., 2007) further supports their role in the decision-making process (Binder et al.”

“The dACC and insula have been implicated in the " moment of recognition " of an object during evidence accumulation (Liu and Pleskac, 2011; Ploran et al., 2007); the dACC specifically is involved in surprise and error detection, and has been suggested to play a role in the " aha! moment " , or to…”

“IC17 consisted of supplementary premotor and motor areas, thalamus, and cerebellum and are consistent with spatial orienting and saccade and response execution during the task (Ploran et al., 2007; Rosen et al., 1999; Seeley et al., 2007).”

“However, they also refine these findings, indicating that such unconscious evidence accumulation process can be amplified by top-down attention and suggesting that conscious perception corresponds to a threshold crossing in evidence accumulation (Dehaene 2011; Kang et al. 2017; King and Dehaene 2014; Ploran et al. 200…”

“Finally, the posterior cingulate, medial PFC and ventral PPC showed a V-shaped pattern.”

“While watching an image was slowly being revealed on a screen, a sudden burst of activity in the anterior insula was found at the moment of recognition (Ploran et al., 2007).”

“…sensory, and emotional/ motivational information, which consequently mediates awareness of sensory stimuli with respect to their motivational relevance and thus facilitates their further processing [Craig, 2002, 2009; see also Critchley et al., 2004; Ploran et al., 2007; Menon and Uddin, 2010].”

“…not designed to provide reliable evidence for either of these possibilities, but several studies have theorized about the existence of an internal evidence accumulation model for perception [64] and previous findings on EEG evoked potentials recordings have already corroborated this theory [65].”

“We used four sensory discrimination tasks in visual and audiovisual domain with varying degree of degraded sensory input, measured fMRI-BOLD signal, and used spectral GC techniques to explore the role of SN in PDM.”

“LO has been suggested to contribute to the comparison of sensory evidence during decision making by accumulating information to the time of recognition (Ploran et al., 2007), and supporting the persistence of a percept (Philiastides and Sajda, 2007).”

“…0.04 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.15 0.13 0.13 High Noise 3.97 1.22 1.93 0.47 0.05 0.07 1.80 -2.37 -- 1.86 -2.09 -- (SD) 0.19 0.12 0.06 0.10 0.04 0.07 0.17 0.21 -- 0.16 0.22 -- Table 2 Regions of interest with reliable increases in task-related activity categorized as sensory regions in Ploran et al., 2007.”

“…magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography/magnetoencephalography methods (Heekeren et al., 2006; Philiastides & Sajda, 2007; Ploran et al., 2007; Tosoni et al., 2008; Donner et al., 2009; Ho et al., 2009; Kayser et al., 2009; Liu & Pleskac, 2011; Gould et al., 2012; Hebart…”

“, 2009), or to form part of a set of regions signaling themoment of recognition (Ploran et al., 2007).”

“Hence, we adapted the accumulator-based decision architecture used by Ploran et al. (2007), Ploran, Tremel, Nelson, and Wheeler (2011) and extended it to investigate a general mechanism concerning the integration of holistic perceptual evidence, decision signaling and response.”

“This pattern of response is consistent with an accumulation of information prior to the time of recognition (Ploran et al., 2007).”

“Based on previous work (Ploran et al. 2007), we suggested that these signals likely come online at or near the end of the trial, providing further evidence that these signals might be in the service of performance reporting to a task-control system.”

“Taken together, our results suggest that active perceptual decision-making is based on the interaction of different neural networks, which have complementary roles in decision formation (Philiastides et al., 2006; Philiastides and Sajda, 2007; Ploran et al., 2007; Heekeren et al., 2008; Mostert et al., 2015; Delis et…”

“First, we surmised ERPeffects reflecting the accumulation of perceptual evidenceover time, with the main neural generators being localized in posterior brain regions, including the occipital and temporal cortices (Ploran et al., 2007).”

“This finding is similar to the patterns of accumulating activity in a perceptual identification task where participants identify an item that is masked and slowly revealed (Ploran, Tremel, Nelson, & Wheeler, 2011; Wheeler, Petersen, Nelson, Ploran, & Velanova, 2008; Ploran et al., 2007).”

“Supplementary Premotor and motor areas, Thalamus and Cerebellum are consistent with spatial orienting and saccade and response accomplishment during the given task (Ploran et al. 2007; Rosen et al. 1999; Seeley et al. 2007).”

“Of note, hierarchical clustering of event-related timecourses was employed (e.g., Ploran et al., 2007; Church et al., 2011), in conjunction with statistical testing, to identify and characterize candidate regions.”

“To simulate a realistic environment, the bonus was distributed each round in the form of cards if the group succeeded in earning the bonus.”

“This result suggests that information processed in the IPS reflects the outcome of memory decisions (Ploran et al., 2007).”

“…previous research, we hypothesized that the integration of categorical evidence would recruit regions of the parietal lobe (Churchland et al., 2008; Ploran et al., 2007; Ploran et al., 2011; Shadlen and Newsome, 2001; Yang and Shadlen, 2007), as well as primary and premotor regions (Gluth et al.,…”

“Furthermore, the activation of anterior insula (along with other regions) was at baseline during evidence accumulation, peaking at stimulus recognition (Ploran et al., 2007), which Ploran et al.”

“However, others have found that the VWFA is also activated for picture stimuli (Bar et al., 2001; Ben-Shachar et al., 2007; Kherif et al., 2011; Ploran et al., 2007; Price and Devlin, 2011; 2003; Starrfelt and Gerlach, 2007; Van Doren et al., 2010; Vogel et al., 2012).”

“In previous research, adding noise to the stimuli was used extensively to study the degree of feature or object category selectivity of a specific neural population or visual cortical area [9,42,43,50] as well as to manipulate stimulus uncertainty and overall task demands in order to reveal the neural processes underl…”

“…with longer RTs (i.e. longer duration for evidence accumulation) associated with a larger blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response (i.e. longer neural activation), independent of stimulus salience (Binder et al., 2004; Grinband et al., 2006; Ploran et al., 2007; Thielscher & Pessoa, 2007).”

“In addition, several fMRI studies provide evidence for the communication between the dorsal and ventral streams during tasks that were theorized to activate only one visual stream (Schenk and Milner 2006; Mahon et al. 2007; Ploran et al. 2007).”

“Other brain regions involved include the frontal eye fields (FEF), the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and parietal regions including the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) and superior and inferior parietal lobules (Aziz-Zadeh, Kaplan, & Iacoboni, 2009; Kounios & Beeman, 2009; Luo, Niki, & Phillips, 2004; Ploran et al…”

“We examined the time course of voxels of the whole-brain BOLD signal (Ploran et al. 2007) in response to mechan­ ical painful stimuli (Magerl et al. 2001; Baumgartner et al. 2010) and used a hierarchical cluster analysis (Smolders et al. 2007; Sack et al. 2008; Gonzalez-Castillo et al. 2012) to…”

“Ploran et al. (2007) found that activation of the anterior insula and dACC tracked with the accumulation of evidence in a perceptual recognition paradigm.”

“…evidence in higher-level brain regions has been demonstrated in both nonhuman primates (Kim and Shadlen, 1999; Shadlen and Newsome, 2001; Romo et al., 2004) and human subjects (Heekeren et al., 2004, 2006, 2008; Ploran et al., 2007; Tosoni et al., 2008; Gross and Ploner, 2009; Ho et al., 2009).”

“Potentially, a process of evidence accumulation occurs simultaneously in multiple brain regions during thematching task beforemaking a final perceptual decision, as described by Ploran et al. (2007). In other words, many regions are involved in perceptual differentiation, but these regions interact and further qualify…”

“For example, in past studies of object identification (Ploran et al., 2007, 2011; Wheeler et al., 2008), objects were gradually revealed from under a mask and participants made a recognition response when they were reasonably confident about the identity of the object.”

“Hence, several previous fMRI studies applied more elaborate experimental designs and analyses methods to distinguish the sensory and motor networks underlying perceptual decision making [Filimon et al., 2013; Ho et al., 2009; Kayser et al., 2010a,b; Liu and Pleskac, 2011; Ploran et al., 2007].”

“3D) with the slope seemingly modulated by punishment, pointing to a potential influence of punishment on the process of temporal evidence accumulation (Gold and Shadlen, 2001, 2007; Ploran et al., 2007; Heekeren et al., 2008; Liu and Pleskac, 2011; Philiastides et al., 2011).”

“…I submit is better translated here as “taking consciousness” (le prise de conscience)18—as a kind of awakening into the world: a ºash of insight regarding organizing structure, leading to “truer” reconstructions of the object-in-experience (Piaget [1974] 1976, [1974] 1978; cf. Ploran et al. 2007).”

“This would imply that haptic-visual priming is mediated solely by shared shape representations, as implied in the interpretation of Reales and Ballesteros (1999). Second, accuracy may be higher in both the identity and the category conditions, and to a similar extent, than accuracy in the unrelated condition.”

“Additionally, responses from 5 visual ROIs based on another slow reveal study (Ploran et al., 2007) were averaged together in a “ Sensory ” ROI cluster as a control condition in which no differences were expected by emotion (see Supplemental Table S1 for all regions and their coordinates).”

“Further studies have also correlated IPS activity with evidence accumulation (Kayser et al., 2010a; Ploran et al., 2007) and motor intention (Hesse et al.”

“, 2011) and human neuroimaging (Ploran et al., 2007; Hebart et al., 2012), suggests that, irrespective of motor affordances, the role of parietal cortex in decision making goes beyond that of general involvement (Ploran et al.”

“[In this study, our approach basically followed Ploran et al. (2007), while we referred to the results of Ploran et al. (2011) as well.]”

“, 2006) or visual decisions (Ploran et al., 2007), as well as memoryrelated conflict monitoring (Fleck et al.”

“2012 Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and Blackwell Publishing Ltd European Journal of Neuroscience, 36, 3732–3739 These areas are known as the early-stage perceptual information ‘accumulators’ (Ploran et al., 2007; Donner et al., 2009).”

“human brain areas using fMRI while complementing other experimental designs like the artificial slowing of evidence accumulation speed [Ploran et al., 2007] and other analyti-”

“For example, cingulo‐opercular function is thought to adjust perceptual decision‐making strategy for upcoming trials (Gratton et al., 2016; Van Maanen et al., 2011; Ploran et al., 2007; Ploran, Tremel, Nelson, & Wheeler, 2011).”

“This would fit with research showing that a network including the anterior insula is engaged when belief updating is based on relative uncertainty in a gradually changing, noisy, uncertain, or perceptually degraded environment (Ploran et al., 2007; Heekeren et al., 2008 for review).”

“Previous electrophysiological research in mice 32,35 , as well as fMRI 30,31,33,36 , MEG 37 and intracranial EEG 27,28,66 research in humans uncovered widely distributed accumulator dynamics with different activity pro fi les in discrimination tasks (Supplementary Fig.”

“A recent fMRI study showed how the bloodoxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal can be used to examine the process of accumulation of sensory evidence (Ploran et al., 2007).”

“More generally, the parallel involvement of the insula and dACC in our study during the processing of new scenes is not surprising, but consistent with many previous findings showing that these two regions likely operate together and eventually form a functional network activated across a variety of stimuli and tasks…”