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Cited by 388Neuroscience and Music PerceptionAdvanced Neuroimaging Techniques and ApplicationsDiverse Music Education Insights

Early Musical Training and White-Matter Plasticity in the Corpus Callosum: Evidence for a Sensitive Period

Open access
Steele, Christopher J., Bailey, Jennifer A., Zatorre, Robert J., Penhune, Virginia B.·2013·The Journal of Neuroscience
DOI 10.1523/jneurosci.3578-12.2013PMC PMC6704889
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Abstract

Training during a sensitive period in development may have greater effects on brain structure and behavior than training later in life. Musicians are an excellent model for investigating sensitive periods because training starts early and can be quantified. Previous studies suggested that early training might be related to greater amounts of white matter in the corpus callosum, but did not control for length of training or identify behavioral correlates of structural change. The current study compared white-matter organization using diffusion tensor imaging in early- and late-trained musicians matched for years of training and experience. We found that early-trained musicians had greater connectivity in the posterior midbody/isthmus of the corpus callosum and that fractional anisotropy in this region was related to age of onset of training and sensorimotor synchronization performance. We propose that training before the age of 7 years results in changes in white-matter connectivity that may serve as a scaffold upon which ongoing experience can build.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Early-trained musicians (onset before age 7) showed greater white-matter connectivity in the posterior midbody/isthmus of the corpus callosum than late-trained musicians matched for years of training and experience. Fractional anisotropy in this region was related to age of onset and to sensorimotor synchronization performance, suggesting a sensitive period for musical training.

Key findings

  • Early-trained musicians (ET; n = 18) had significantly greater fractional anisotropy (FA) than late-trained musicians (LT; n = 18) in the posterior midbody/isthmus of the corpus callosum (peak voxel: −14, −11, 32, t = 4.55), despite matching on years of formal training, years of experience, and current practice hours.
  • ET had lower radial diffusivity (RD) than LT in this region (t(34) = 3.59, p < 0.001), with no significant group differences in axial diffusivity (AD).
  • Age of onset of musical training correlated with FA (r = −0.40, p < 0.05) and RD (r = 0.36, p < 0.05) in the corpus callosum, controlling for age, sex, and years of formal training.
  • Sensorimotor synchronization performance (PSYN Final) correlated with FA across all participants (r = 0.30, p < 0.05), driven by nonmusicians (r = 0.57, p < 0.05); in left temporal lobe pathways, PSYN Final correlated with FA in LT (r = 0.59, p < 0.05) and NM (r = 0.63, p < 0.05). Behaviorally, ET outperformed LT on PSYN across all blocks (p < 0.05), and ET outperformed LT on percentage correct on block 2 (p < 0.05).

Methods

  • Cross-sectional comparison of 36 highly trained musicians divided into ET (training before age 7; n = 18, 8 females) and LT (training after age 7; n = 18, 4 females), matched for years of musical experience, years of formal training, and current practice hours, plus 17 nonmusician controls (NM; n = 17, 7 females).
  • Participants completed the temporal motor sequencing task (TMST) over 2 consecutive days, with three blocks of 16 trials per day; performance was scored as percentage correct (PCOR) and percentage synchronization (PSYN).
  • Diffusion tensor imaging was acquired on a Siemens Trio 3T MRI (99 directions, TR = 9340 ms, TE = 88 ms, b = 1000 s/mm², 2 × 2 × 2 mm) and analyzed with FSL tract-based spatial statistics, permutation-based nonparametric tests (5000 permutations), age and sex as covariates, and threshold-free cluster enhancement; probabilistic tractography characterized connectivity of significant regions.

Limitations

  • Stated: the only possible direct tests for a sensitive period would come from randomized designs (musical vs. nonmusical training, with age as a parameter) or longitudinal studies assessing brain structure and performance across development; the present findings are proposed to motivate such studies.
  • Stated: preexisting genetic or environmental factors may influence both the propensity to begin training early and observed differences in brain structure and behavior, so preexisting differences cannot be ruled out as a partial cause.
  • Evident from the text: the design is cross-sectional and correlational, so it cannot establish causality; ET and LT differed in current age (ET mean 22.72 years vs. LT mean 27.61 years) and had unequal sex distributions, both included as covariates, and the nonmusician control group was selected only for little or no musical experience, which the authors note could obscure possible differences with the LT group.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1523/jneurosci.3578-12.2013

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 77 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Fractional anisotropy in the posterior midbody/isthmus of the corpus callosum was related to age of onset of training.

    “fractional anisotropy in this region was related to age of onset of training and sensorimotor synchronization performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A smoothed whole-brain FA comparison showed the only location where ET had greater FA than LT was in a very similar region of the posterior midbody/isthmus of the corpus callosum.

    “The results showed that the only location where ET had greater FA than LT was in a very similar region of the posterior midbody/isthmus of the CC (peak voxel: Ϫ12, Ϫ22, 32, t ϭ 5.42, p Ͻ 0.05 fully corrected).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    At a reduced threshold, ET had greater FA in a large portion of bilateral rostral body and midbody of the corpus callosum.

    “Consistent with previous studies, this analysis showed that ET had greater FA in a large portion of bilateral rostral body and midbody of the CC.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schlaug et al., 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    ET had significantly greater FA than LT in a region of the corpus callosum including the posterior midbody and anterior portion of the isthmus.

    “ET had significantly greater FA than LT in a region of the corpus callosum including the posterior midbody and anterior portion of the isthmus (peak voxel: Ϫ14, Ϫ11, 32, t ϭ 4.55; Fig. 2A).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    ET had lower RD than LT and NM in the peak voxel of the posterior midbody/isthmus.

    “There was a significant group difference in RD such that ET had lower values than LT and NM (ET Ͻ LT: t (34) ϭ 3.59, p Ͻ 0.001; ET Ͻ NM: p ϭ 0.06; LT Ͻ NM: p ϭ 0.92; Fig. 2B, left).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 29
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 10

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Accuracy (PCOR) differed by group and block, with no interaction.

    “Accuracy, as measured by the percentage of correct responses on the learned sequence (PCOR), differed by group and block (group: F (2,50) ϭ 6.18, p Ͻ 0.05, ␩ 2 ϭ 0.20; block: F (5,250) ϭ 8.89, p Ͻ 0.001, ␩ 2 ϭ 0.15), with no interaction (group ϫ block: F (10,250) ϭ 0.85, p ϭ 0.59).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    ET had better synchronization performance than LT across all blocks, and LT had better performance than NM.

    “Planned directional t tests revealed that ET had better synchronization performance than LT across all blocks (ET Ͼ LT: blocks 1-6, p Ͻ 0.05) and LT had better performance than NM (LT Ͼ NM: blocks 1-2, p Ͻ 0.05; blocks 3-6, p Ͻ 0.001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    ET had better PCOR than LT on block 2, and LT showed better PCOR than NM on blocks 3-6.

    “Planned directional t tests revealed that ET had better performance than LT on block 2 (ET Ͼ LT: p Ͻ 0.05) and LT showed better performance than NM on blocks 3-6 (LT Ͼ NM: blocks 3-6, p Ͻ 0.05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    PSYN showed significant differences between groups and blocks, with no interaction.

    “Performance on the measure of sensorimotor synchronization (PSYN) also showed significant differences between groups (group: F (2,50) ϭ 21.26, p Ͻ 0.001, ␩ 2 ϭ 0.46; block: F (5,250) ϭ 25.87, p Ͻ 0.001, ␩ 2 ϭ 0.34), with no interaction (group ϫ block: F (10,250) ϭ 0.28, p ϭ 0.99).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    FA in the corpus callosum peak voxel was positively correlated with PSYN Final across all participants, but this effect was predominantly driven by the correlation within NM.

    “There was a significant positive correlation across all participants (All: r ϭ 0.30, p Ͻ 0.05); however, this effect was predominantly driven by the correlation within NM (ET: p ϭ 0.67; LT: p ϭ 0.80; NM: r ϭ 0.57, p Ͻ 0.05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    All groups improved across blocks, with musicians exhibiting better performance than non-musicians.

    “All groups improved across blocks, with musicians exhibiting better performance than non-musicians”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Age of onset was significantly correlated with years of formal training but not with years of experience or hours of current practice.

    “Age of onset was significantly correlated with years of formal training (r ϭ Ϫ0.41, p Ͻ 0.05) but not years of experience ( p ϭ 0.99) or hours of current practice ( p ϭ 0.83).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Musician groups had no significant differences in years of formal training, years of experience, or current hours of practice.

    “Musician groups were well matched for musical training variables, with no significant differences in years of formal training, years of experience, or current hours of practice (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    ET and LT had the same amount of musical training, while non-musicians had almost none.

    “Contrary to expectations, we found no evidence that LT differed from non-musicians, even though ET and LT had the same amount of musical training while non-musicians had almost none.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mean FA in the temporal lobe ROI did not differ between musician subgroups but differed between musicians and nonmusicians.

    “Mean FA did not differ between musician subgroups but differed between musicians and nonmusicians (ET Ͼ LT: p ϭ 0.10; ET Ͼ NM: t (33) ϭ 3.98, p Ͻ 0.001; LT Ͼ NM: t (33) ϭ 2.56, p Ͻ 0.05; Fig. 4B, left).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There were no differences between groups on RD or AD in the tract-defined volume.

    “FA was greater in ET than LT (ET Ͼ LT: t (34) ϭ 2.11, p Ͻ 0.05; ET Ͼ NM: p ϭ 0.07; LT Ͼ NM: p ϭ 0.72); there were no differences between groups on RD (ET Ͻ LT: p ϭ 0.09; ET Ͻ NM: p ϭ 0.16; LT Ͻ NM: p ϭ 0.36) or AD (ET Ͼ LT: p ϭ 0.21; ET Ͼ NM: p ϭ 0.38; LT Ͼ NM: p ϭ 0.71).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The significant correlation between PSYN Final and FA in NM was driven by a significant correlation with RD, with no relationship with AD.

    “Consistent with a link between RD, greater myelination, and greater performance, the significant correlation between PSYN Final and FA in NM was driven by a significant correlation with RD (NM: r ϭ Ϫ0.59, p Ͻ 0.05) while there was no relationship with AD (NM: p ϭ 0.46).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Fractional anisotropy and radial diffusivity in the corpus callosum reflect white-matter connectivity and myelination.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Age of onset was significantly negatively correlated with FA and positively correlated with RD in the temporal lobe region, controlling for age, sex, and years of formal training.

    “Our results showed a significant negative correlation between age of onset and FA and a significant positive correlation between age of onset and RD when controlling for age, sex, and years of formal training (FA: r ϭ Ϫ0.41, p Ͻ 0.05; RD: r ϭ 0.38, p Ͻ 0.05; Fig. 4B, middle).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Results were assessed for significance after multiple comparisons using threshold-free cluster enhancement.

    “Results were assessed for significance after multiple comparisons (␣ ϭ 0.05) using threshold-free cluster enhancement”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Smith and Nichols, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Previous studies did not demonstrate any relationship between differences in brain structure and performance.

    “Further, previous studies did not demonstrate any relationship between differences in brain structure and performance, which is critical in establishing their relevance.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Music and other forms of training induce gray and white matter changes.

    “Music and other forms of training induce gray and white matter changes”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hyde et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Imfeld et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Scholz et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The anterior corpus callosum was larger in musicians than nonmusicians, and the difference was greater for those who began training before the age of 7 years.

    “Evidence for a possible sensitive period for musical training came from a study showing that the anterior corpus callosum (CC) was larger in musicians than nonmusicians, and that the difference was greater for those who began training before the age of 7 years”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schlaug et al., 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Age and sex were entered as covariates of no interest in the structural analyses.

    “Nonparametric permutation-based analyses were conducted with 5000 permutations for all analyses, with age and sex entered as covariates of no interest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies suggested that early training might be related to greater amounts of white matter in the corpus callosum, but did not control for length of training or identify behavioral correlates of structural change.

    “Previous studies suggested that early training might be related to greater amounts of white matter in the corpus callosum, but did not control for length of training or identify behavioral correlates of structural change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schlaug et al., 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The extent of the representation of the left hand and motor cortex size have been shown to be related to early onset of training.

    “Further, the extent of the representation of the left hand (Elbert et al., 1995) and motor cortex size (Amunts et al., 1997) have also been shown to be related to early onset of training.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Elbert et al., 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Amunts et al., 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Groups were matched for years of musical experience, years of formal training, and hours of current practice.

    “Groups were matched for years of musical experience (total years of training and practicing music), years of formal training (total years enrolled in music lessons), and hours of current practice as assessed by the Musical Experience Questionnaire developed in our laboratory”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bailey and Penhune, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Years of formal training was used as a covariate of no interest in correlational analyses to isolate effects of age of onset.

    “Thus, to more precisely isolate the effects of age of onset across musician groups, we also used years of formal training as a covariate of no interest in correlational analyses described below.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Early musical training has a differential impact on white matter structure and sensorimotor synchronization performance, providing evidence for a sensitive period where experience produces long-lasting changes in the brain and behavior.

    “Our results show that early musical training has a differential impact on white matter structure and sensorimotor synchronization performance, providing evidence for a sensitive period where experience produces long-lasting changes in the brain and behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Fractional anisotropy and radial diffusivity in the corpus callosum reflect white-matter connectivity and myelination.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Musical training is a rich source of bottom-up stimulation to the sensory and motor systems, and places demands on cognitive systems involved in auditory-motor integration, attention, and memory.

    “Musical training is a rich source of bottom-up stimulation to the sensory and motor systems, and places demands on cognitive systems involved in auditory-motor integration, attention, and memory (Zatorre et al., 2007;Wan and Schlaug, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Zatorre et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wan and Schlaug, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individual differences in FA in this subregion of the corpus callosum have been shown to be less strongly influenced by genetics, and are thus more likely to be influenced by environmental factors such as musical training.

    “Individual differences in FA in this subregion of the CC have been shown to be less strongly influenced by genetics (Chiang et al., 2009), and are thus more likely to be influenced by environmental factors such as musical training.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chiang et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Interaction between different functional regions may be particularly important for neuronal change.

    “thus, interaction between different functional regions may be particularly important for neuronal change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Playing a musical instrument requires the coordinated action of the two hands, and interhemispheric interactions mediated by the corpus callosum play a prominent role in bimanual coordination.

    “Playing a musical instrument requires the coordinated action of the two hands and interhemispheric interactions mediated by the CC have been shown to play a prominent role in bimanual coordination (Swinnen, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Swinnen, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Studies with congenitally deaf cats have shown microstructural changes in the dendrites of auditory cortex and changes in cortical excitability that can be ameliorated by early cochlear implantation.

    “Studies with congenitally deaf cats have shown microstructural changes in the dendrites of auditory cortex (Wurth et al., 2001) and changes in cortical excitability that can be ameliorated by early cochlear implantation (Klinke et al., 1999;Kral et al., 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Wurth et al., 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Klinke et al., 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kral et al., 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The left temporal lobe region includes fibers from auditory cortex that connect to the motor and parietal cortices through the arcuate fasciculus.

    “This region includes fibers from auditory cortex that connect to the motor and parietal cortices through the arcuate fasciculus (Petrides and Pandya, 1988;Glasser and Rilling, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Petrides and Pandya, 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Glasser and Rilling, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    White matter plasticity as measured by FA is hypothesized to be based on experience-dependent neuronal firing.

    “White matter plasticity as measured by FA is hypothesized to be based on experience-dependent neuronal firing (Fields, 2005;Zatorre et al., 2012); thus, interaction between different functional regions may be particularly important for neuronal change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Fields, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Zatorre et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Six-year-olds who received 15 months of musical training showed increased volume in a similar region of the corpus callosum, and FA in this region in adult musicians has been linked to hours of practice before the age of 11 years.

    “Consistent with this, 6-year-olds who received 15 months of musical training showed increased volume in a similar region of the CC (Hyde et al., 2009), and FA in this region in adult musicians has been linked to hours of practice before the age of 11 years (Bengtsson et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hyde et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bengtsson et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Greater radial diffusivity in the corpus callosum of ET is a possible indicator of greater myelination.

    “In keeping with this interpretation, greater radial diffusivity in the CC of ET is a possible indicator of greater myelination.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Early musical training can produce long-lasting changes in behavior and the brain.

    “In conclusion, our findings provide compelling evidence that early musical training can produce long-lasting changes in behavior and the brain.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Preexisting factors, whether genetic or environmental, may also influence both the propensity to begin training early and the observed differences in brain structure and behavior.

    “Preexisting factors, whether genetic or environmental, may also influence both the propensity to begin training early and the observed differences in brain structure and behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    White matter in this region of the corpus callosum may be under less strong genetic control than other regions, undergoes normative developmental plasticity between the ages of 6 and 8 years, and changes as a result of training.

    “As described above, white matter in this region of the CC may be under less strong genetic control than other regions (Chiang et al., 2009), undergoes normative developmental plasticity between the ages of 6 and 8 years (Westerhausen et al., 2011), and changes as a result of training (Hyde et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chiang et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Westerhausen et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hyde et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Neuroimaging studies have shown greater functional connectivity in musicians between auditory and motor regions, as well as between premotor cortex and thalamus.

    “Neuroimaging studies have shown greater functional connectivity in musicians between auditory and motor regions (Zatorre et al., 2007;Chen et al., 2008), as well as between premotor cortex and thalamus (Krause et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Zatorre et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Chen et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Krause et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Genetic factors have been linked to the ability to acquire absolute pitch and to measures of musical aptitude.

    “Genetic factors have been linked to the ability to acquire absolute pitch (Zatorre, 2003) and to measures of musical aptitude (Ukkola et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Zatorre, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ukkola et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increases in radial diffusivity have been linked to decreased myelin protein content, dysmyelination, and axon degeneration.

    “Increases in radial diffusivity have been linked to decreased myelin protein content (Song et al., 2002), dysmyelination (Sun et al., 2008;Klawiter et al., 2011), and axon degeneration (Pierpaoli et al., 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Song et al., 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sun et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pierpaoli et al., 2001 source

      Not checked in the free run.

38 of 38

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Fractional anisotropy and radial diffusivity in the corpus callosum reflect white-matter connectivity and myelination.

    “Consistent with a link between RD, greater myelination, and greater performance”
    “We found that early-trained musicians had greater connectivity in the posterior midbody/isthmus of the corpus callosum”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Early musical training requires practice of bimanual skills.

    “Early musical training, by requiring practice of bimanual skills, may place greater demands on interhemispheric interactions between sensorimotor regions, thus promoting the development of enhanced connections that are indexed by increased FA.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The only possible direct tests for a sensitive period would come from randomized designs or longitudinal studies.

    “Nevertheless, the only possible direct tests for a sensitive period would come from studies using randomized designs (musical vs nonmusical training, with age as a parameter) or from longitudinal studies assessing changes in brain structure and performance across development.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Radial diffusivity in early-trained musicians is described in opposite directions

    Minor

    The results say radial diffusivity was lower in early-trained musicians, but the mechanistic interpretation says it was greater. This reverses a finding used to interpret the white-matter difference.

  • Early-trained age range includes the stated cutoff age

    Minor

    ET is defined as starting before age 7, but Table 1 gives the ET age-of-onset range as 3-7 years, which includes age 7.

2 of 2

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 69 · Cited by 388

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Wurth N Heid S Kral A Klinke R (2001) From molecular neurobiology to clinical neuroscience: proceedings of the 27th Gottingen Neurobiology Conference Morphology of neurons in the primary auditory cortex (AI) in normal and congenitally deaf white cats—study of Dil labelled cells, eds Elsner N Eysel U (Georg Thieme Verlag, Germany), p 318.

Authors
Steele, C. J., Bailey, J. A., Zatorre, R. J., & Penhune, V. B.
Affiliations
  • Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences (DE)
  • Concordia University (CA)
  • Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital (CA)
ORCID
Venue
The Journal of Neuroscience
Publisher
Society for Neuroscience
Published
2013-01-16
Volume
33
Issue
3
Pages
1282-1290
ISSN
  • 0270-6474 (ISSN-L)
  • 1529-2401
DOI
10.1523/jneurosci.3578-12.2013
PMC
PMC6704889
OpenAlex
W2157938614
Semantic Scholar
2af3ee0e98c7c47a1acb3eae829014bbec200c8c
Cited by
388
References
69
Citations by year
2026: 10 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 20
FWCI
18.94
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • McGill University
  • Canadian Institutes of Health Research (MOP-220211)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Music Perception
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Music › Diverse Music Education Insights
Keywords
corpus callosum, white matter plasticity, sensitive period, fractional anisotropy, sensorimotor synchronization, musicians, diffusion tensor imaging
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Child, Preschool, Corpus Callosum, Critical Period, Psychological, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Music, Nerve Fibers, Myelinated, Neuronal Plasticity, Organ Size, Psychomotor Performance

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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