Cited by 501Primate Behavior and EcologyLanguage and cultural evolutionEvolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 46 of the 46 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Distribution Patterns of Tropical Plant Foods as an Evolutionary Stimulus to Primate Mental Development

MILTON, KATHARINE·1981·American Anthropologist

DOI 10.1525/aa.1981.83.3.02a00020

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Primates are noted for their mental abilities but the selective basis for such traits has remained obscure. It is hypothesized that the element of predictability associated with the spatial and temporal distribution patterns of plant foods in tropical forests has served to stimulate mental development in primates taking much of their food from the first trophic level. Primates able to remember the locations and phenological patterns of a wide variety of plant foods could move directly to such foods when and where available without wasting time and energy in random search. This would enhance overall foraging success by lowering procurement costs associated with a varied and patchily distributed plant diet. Membership in a cohesive social unit, that utilized the same supplying area over many consecutive generations, would also enhance foraging success by serving to transmit important information about diet to close kin. Data on the foraging behavior of howler and spider monkeys are presented to test certain implications of this hypothesis. Similar selective pressures, but applied to foods from the second trophic level, may have been of critical importance in the mental development of hominids. [primates, evolution, intelligence, plant foods, Aleles, Alouatta]

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1525/aa.1981.83.3.02a00020

Cites

46 of 46 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

On Optimal Use of a Patchy Environment
MacArthur, R. H., & Pianka, E. R. (1966) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/282454 · Cited by 4,593
Theory of Feeding Strategies
Schoener, T. W. (1971) · Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics · doi:10.1146/annurev.es.02.110171.002101 · Cited by 3,605
The ecology of arboreal folivores.
Montgomery, G. G. (1978) · Cited by 1,422
Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence
(1973) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-123-85250-2.x5001-9 · Cited by 668
Primates, brains and ecology
Clutton‐Brock, T. H., & Harvey, P. H. (1980) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb01430.x · Cited by 550
An Analysis of Diet Selection by Large Generalist Herbivores
Westoby, M. (1974) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/282908 · Cited by 548
Factors Influencing Leaf Choice by Howler Monkeys: A Test of Some Hypotheses of Food Selection by Generalist Herbivores
Milton, K. (1979) · The American Naturalist · doi:10.1086/283485 · Cited by 537
Self-citation
The Foraging Strategy of Howler Monkeys
Milton, K. (1980) · Columbia University Press eBooks · Cited by 476
Self-citation
Feeding Behaviour of Chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania
Wrangham, R. W. (1977) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-176850-8.50022-6 · Cited by 459
Size and Scaling in Human Evolution: Homo sapiens is a peculiar large primate; however, all australopithecines are versions of the "same" animal.
Pilbeam, D., & Gould, S. J. (1974) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.186.4167.892 · Cited by 416

Flagged first, then by citations

Show all 46 references

Research works printed but not linked: 16

Augspurger Carol A.1978Reproductive Consequences of Flowering Synchrony inHybanthus prunifolius(Violaceae) and other shrub species of Panama.Ph.D. dissertation University of Michigan.
Chaney Margaret S., 1971, Nutrition
Glander Kenneth E.1975Habitat and Resource Utilization: An Ecological View of Social Organization in Mantled Howler Monkeys.Ph.D. dissertation University of Chicago.
Hladik C. M., 1978, The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores, 373
Holloway Ralph L., 1967, The Evolution of the Human Brain: Some Notes Toward a Synthesis between Neural Structures and the Evolution of Complex Behavior, General Systems, 3
Leigh Egbert E., 1978, The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores, 33
Maynard Leonard A., 1969, Animal Nutrition
Mech L. David, 1966, The Wolves of Isle Royale
Milton Katharine1977aThe Foraging Strategy of the Howler Monkey in the Tropical Forest of Barro Colorado Island Panama.Ph.D. dissertation.New York University.
Milton Katharine, 1977, Stability of Tropical Environments and Populations, 3
Milton Katharine, 1977, Behavioral Adaptations to Diet by the Barro Colorado Howler Monkey, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 47, 150
Parra R., 1978, The Ecology of Arboreal Folivores, 205
Schultz Adolph H., 1968, Perspectives in Human Evolution 1, 122
Lawick‐Goodall Jane, 1973, Precultural Primate Behavior, 144
Soest Peter J., 1981, Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant: Nutritional Strategy, Metabolism and Cellulolytic Fermentation and the Chemistry of Forages and Plant Fibers
Washburn S. L., 1968, Perspectives in Human Evolution 1, 213

Sorted by citations

Items 201–300 of 498

Ontogeny, biography, and evidence for tactical deception
Mitchell, R. W. (1988) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00049852 · Cited by 17
Wild common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) employ spatial cognitive abilities to improve their food search and consumption: an experimental approach in small-scale space
Abreu, F., Souto, A., & Schiel, N. (2020) · Primates · doi:10.1007/s10329-020-00826-1 · Cited by 14
“This quick spatial learning can make the individual more efficient than others (conspecific or heterospecific individuals) in competitive situations (Milton 1981; Corlett 2011).”
Background
Foraging Benefits of Ecological Cognition in Fruit-Eating Primates: Results From Field Experiments and Computer Simulations
Janson, C. H. (2019) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00125 · Cited by 14
“The major competing hypotheses look at the use of brains in social intelligence (review: Seyfarth and Cheney, 2012), foraging efficiency (e.g., Menzel, 1973; Milton, 1981; Janson, 2014), and tool use (e.g., Boesch and Boesch, 1984; Antinucci and Visalberghi, 1986).”
Background
Understanding of object properties by sloth bears, Melursus ursinus ursinus
Amici, F., Cacchione, T., & Guerra, N. B. (2017) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.10.028 · Cited by 15
“Published by Els dietary complexity or living in complex societies, all factors that have been linked to an enhancement of cognitive skills (see Barton & Dunbar, 1997; Barton, 2012; Dunbar, 1998; Hare, Brown, Williamson, & Tomasello, 2002; Milton, 1981).”
Evolution of Hominid Life History Strategy and Origin of Human Family
Yamagiwa, J. (2015) · Primatology monographs · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55480-6_11 · Cited by 15
Group differences in feeding and diet composition of wild western gorillas
Fuh, T. N., Todd, A. F., Feistner, A. T. C., Donati, G., & Masi, S. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-13728-7 · Cited by 14
Innovation across 13 ungulate species: problem solvers are less integrated in the social group and less neophobic
Caicoya, Á. L., Schaffer, A., Holland, R., von Fersen, L., Colell, M., & Amici, F. (2023) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2022.2384 · Cited by 11
“Therefore, whereas dietary breadth might play a crucial role in the emergence of complex cognitive skills in birds or primates [43,94], other socio-ecological characteristics may be more relevant in ungulates for the emergence of problem solving skills.”
BackgroundResult
Navigating in a challenging semiarid environment: the use of a route-based mental map by a small-bodied neotropical primate
Abreu, F., Garber, P. A., Souto, A., Presotto, A., & Schiel, N. (2021) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-020-01465-1 · Cited by 14
Engaging and Exploring: Cortical Circuits for Adaptive Foraging Decisions
Barack, D. L., & Platt, M. L. (2017) · Nebraska Symposium on Motivation/The Nebraska symposium on motivation · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51721-6_6 · Cited by 14
Spatial representation of magnitude in humans (Homo sapiens), Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), and American black bears (Ursus americanus)
Johnson‐Ulrich, Z., & Vonk, J. M. (2018) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-018-1186-y · Cited by 14
Effect of Fruit Scarcity on Use of Spatial Memory in a Seed Predator, White-faced Saki (Pithecia pithecia)
Cunningham, E. P., & Janson, C. H. (2013) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-013-9697-5 · Cited by 14
“Primates that rely on patchy resources such as ripe fruit should have evolved greater “mental development” than those that eat more uniformly distributed resources such as leaves (Milton 1981, 1988).”
What do Natural Categorization Studies Tell us about the Concepts of Apes and Bears?
Vonk, J. M., & Galvan, M. (2014) · Animal Behavior and Cognition · doi:10.12966/abc.08.07.2014 · Cited by 13
What Behavioral Abilities Emerged at Key Milestones in Human Brain Evolution? 13 Hypotheses on the 600-Million-Year Phylogenetic History of Human Intelligence
Bennett, M. S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685853 · Cited by 13
“Forest fruits are variable, can face big shortages, are only available and ripe for short periods of time (sometimes only for 72 h, Milton, 1981), and are sought after by many animals (Milton, 1981, 1988; Chapman et al., 1999, 2004; Janmaat et al., 2014).”
Background
Where to sleep next? Evidence for spatial memory associated with sleeping sites in Skywalker gibbons (Hoolock tianxing)
Fei, H., de Guinea, M., Yang, L., Chapman, C. A., & Fan, P. (2022) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-022-01600-0 · Cited by 13
“Thus, animals foraging for highly ephemeral and dispersed food items, such as fruits, have likely benefitted from evolving sophisticated cognitive skills to forage across rainforests (Milton 1981; DeCasien et al.”
Background
Intelligence's likelihood and evolutionary time frame
Bogonovich, M. (2011) · International Journal of Astrobiology · doi:10.1017/s147355041000042x · Cited by 13
“So plants present primates with a cognitive problem and an energetic supply (Milton 1981).”
Background
Jumping spiders: An exceptional group for comparative cognition studies
Aguilar-Argüello, S., & Nelson, X. J. (2021) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/s13420-020-00445-2 · Cited by 14
Ecological factors predictive of wild spider monkey (Ateles belzebuth) foraging decisions in Yasuní, Ecuador
Suarez, S. A. (2014) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.22303 · Cited by 13
“This freedom of association allowsmonkeys to make their own foraging decisions, as they are not constrained to always travel in the company of conspecifics [Milton, 1981].”
BackgroundInfluential
Why are ravens smart? Exploring the social intelligence hypothesis
Bugnyar, T. (2023) · Journal für Ornithologie · doi:10.1007/s10336-023-02111-6 · Cited by 12
“While the former emphasizes food distribution and/or accessibility as key factors (patchily distributed food, Milton 1981; extractive foraging, Parker and Gibson 1977), the latter considers dealing with conspecifics and maneuvering in a social network as key factors for driving cognitive evolution…”
Background
Do Javan gibbons (Hylobates moloch) use fruiting synchrony as a foraging strategy?
Jang, H., Oktaviani, R., Kim, S., Mardiastuti, A., & Choe, J. C. (2021) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23319 · Cited by 12
“To overcome foraging challenges across complex environments primates may have developed several foraging strategies in combination with use of sensory cues (Milton, 1981, 1988; Riotte‐Lambert & Matthiopoulos, 2020; Rosati, 2017; Spiegel & Crofoot, 2016).”
Background
Orbital dynamics, environmental heterogeneity, and the evolution of the human brain
Grove, M. L. (2012) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2012.06.003 · Cited by 13
“…the need to maintain detailed knowledge of a large home range to satisfy energetic requirements (Clutton-Brock & Harvey, 1980), or the demands of tracking a transient and ephemeral food source (Milton, 1981), ecological hypotheses have focused on difficulties associated with the subsistence base.”
Background
No evidence of what-where-when memory in great apes (Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus, Pongo abelii, and Gorilla gorilla).
Pladevall, J., Mendes, N., Riba, D., Llorente, M., & Amici, F. (2020) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/com0000215 · Cited by 12
When Will We Meet Again? Regularities of Social Connectivity and Their Reflections in Memory and Decision Making
Pachur, T., Schooler, L. J., & Stevens, J. R. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0007 · Cited by 12
Simple Heuristics in a Social Game
Hertwig, R., Fischbacher, U., & Bruhin, A. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0002 · Cited by 12
The Is and Ought of Sharing: The Equality Heuristic Across the Lifespan
Keller, M., Gummerum, M., Canz, T., Gigerenzer, G., & Takezawa, M. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0006 · Cited by 12
Logical inferences from visual and auditory information in ruffed lemurs and sifakas
Petrillo, F. D., & Rosati, A. G. (2020) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.03.010 · Cited by 12
“For example, frugivorous species depend more on food sources that are patchily distributed in the environment and more difficult to locate (Milton, 1981; Rosati, 2017).”
BackgroundInfluential
Great tits who remember more accurately have difficulty forgetting, but variation is not driven by environmental harshness
Hermer, E., Murphy, B., Chaine, A. S., & Morand‐Ferron, J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-89125-3 · Cited by 11
A comparison of spontaneous problem-solving abilities in three estrildid finch (Taeniopygia guttata, Lonchura striata var. domestica, Stagonopleura guttata) species.
Schmelz, M., Krüger, O., Call, J., & Krause, E. T. (2015) · Journal of comparative psychology · doi:10.1037/a0039646 · Cited by 11
“Initially, only nonsocial environmental problems such as coping with ephemeral resources in space and time (Milton, 1981) or extracting resources embedded in various substrates (Parker & Gibson, 1977) were considered as the main selection pressures behind cognitive evolution.”
Background
The Mind as an Intuitive Pollster: Frugal Search in Social Spaces
Pachur, T., Hertwig, R., & Rieskamp, J. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0009 · Cited by 11
Annual physiological changes in individually housed squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)
Schiml, P. A., Mendoza, S. P., Wendy Saltzman, A., Lyons, D. M., & Mason, W. A. (1999) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2345(1999)47:2 · Cited by 31
Linking the evolution of two prefrontal brain regions to social and foraging challenges in primatesPreprint
Bouret, S., Paradis, E., Prat, S., Castro, L., Pérez, P., Gilissen, E., & Garcia, C. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.87780 · Cited by 13
“Thus, these data are also compatible with the ecological brain hypothesis ( Milton, 1981 ).”
BackgroundResult
Plant Diversity in the Diet of Costa Rican Primates in Contrasting Habitats: A Meta-Analysis
Chaves, Ó. M., Cerdas, V. M., Quiros, J., Azofeifa-Rojas, I., Riba‐Hernández, P., Solano-Rojas, D., Chaves-Cordero, C., Chacón‐Madrigal, E., & Melin, A. D. (2023) · Diversity · doi:10.3390/d15050602 · Cited by 10
Group Prerelease Training Yields Positive Rehabilitation Outcomes Among Juvenile Mantled Howlers (Alouatta palliata)
Schwartz, J. W., Hopkins, M. E., & Hopkins, S. L. (2016) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-016-9900-6 · Cited by 10
“…>180 species of food trees; as a result, they may experience less selective pressure to identify and find palatable food items than species that rely on food items that are more restricted in space and time (Milton 1980, 1981, 2000), lessening the benefits of close proximity to conspecifics.”
Background
How do primates decide where to feed? Insights from wild western gorillas
Robira, B., Benhamou, S., Bayanga, E. O., Breuer, T., & Masi, S. (2023) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2023.07.012 · Cited by 11
Choosing the best way: how wild common marmosets travel to efficiently exploit resources
Xavier, D. P., Abreu, F., Souto, A., & Schiel, N. (2024) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-024-01864-8 · Cited by 9
“Frugivory has been related to both larger brain size (Milton 1981; Barton 2000/2006 ; DeCasien et al. 2017) and the use of more complex foraging strategies (Milton 1981; Teichroeb and Vining 2019 ).”
Background
Unruly octopuses are the rule: Octopus vulgaris use multiple and individually variable strategies in an episodic-like memory task
Poncet, L., Desnous, C., Bellanger, C., & Jozet‐Alves, C. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.244234 · Cited by 9
Do Seasonal Frugivory and Cognition Shape Foraging Movements in Wild Western Gorillas?
Robira, B., Benhamou, S., Fuh, T. N., & Masi, S. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-27030-7_9 · Cited by 9
Seasonally Consistent Small Home Range and Long Ranging Distance in Presbytis rubicunda in Danum Valley, Borneo
Hanya, G., & Bernard, H. (2016) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-016-9907-z · Cited by 9
“For example, preferred high-quality foods are usually found only in a limited space, so some primates move a long distance to secure such highquality foods but range less when they eat abundant low-quality foods (Agetsuma 1995; Agostini et al. 2010; Hill andAgetsuma 1995;Milton 1981).”
Background
Social and Physical Cognition in Marmosets and Tamarins
Huber, L., & Voelkl, B. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0293-1_10 · Cited by 9
“The view that foraging creates the main selective pressure for morphological, sensual, and cognitive adaptations, resulting in the emergence of large brains among primate species, continues to be a matter of debate (Milton 1981).”
Background
Testing the Cognition of the Forgotten Colobines: A First Look at Golden Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)
Tan, J., Tao, R., & Su, Y. (2013) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-013-9741-5 · Cited by 9
“It has long been proposed that feeding ecology shapes some aspects of cognitive skills (Marshall and Wrangham 2007; Milton 1981; Parker and Gibson 1977).”
The cerebellum and cognitive evolution in Pliocene and Pleistocene hominids
Weaver, A. H. (2001) · Cited by 9
Tool use in birds: An avian monkey wrench?
Pepperberg, I. M. (1989) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00057885 · Cited by 9
Sources of variation in search and foraging: A theoretical perspective
Smith, A. D., & Lillo, C. D. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218211050314 · Cited by 8
“That said, primate search patterns are generally reported to be influenced by the shape of the environment, the distribution and configuration of resources (Menzel, 1973; Menzel, 1996; De Lillo, Visalberghi & Aversano, 1997; De Lillo, Aversano, Tuci & Visalberghi, 1998), and spatial memory (MacDonald & Wilkie, 1990; J…”
Influential
Down a Rabbit Hole: Burrowing Behaviour and Larger Home Ranges are Related to Larger Brains in Leporids
Todorov, O. S., Hird, C., Kraatz, B., Sherratt, E., Hill, N., de Sousa, A. A., Blomberg, S. P., & Weisbecker, V. (2022) · Journal of Mammalian Evolution · doi:10.1007/s10914-022-09624-6 · Cited by 8
“Some of these relate to selection pressures that might be imposed on the individual (Milton 1981; DeCasien et al. 2017; Rosati 2017) or social level (Dunbar 1998).”
Background
Climate, Temporal Abundance of Key Food Sources and Home Ranges of Crested Macaques (Macaca nigra) in Sulawesi, Indonesia: A Longitudinal Phenological Study
Joly, M., Tamengge, M., Pfeifer, J.-B., Price, M., Agil, M., & Engelhardt, A. (2023) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-023-00377-4 · Cited by 8
Nonhuman Primate learning: The Importance of learning from an Evolutionary Perspective
Pokier, F. E., & Hussey, L. (1982) · Anthropology & Education Quarterly · doi:10.1525/aeq.1982.13.2.05x1830j · Cited by 8
Capuchin monkeys (Cebus nigritus) use spatial and visual information during within‐patch foraging
Gomes, D. F., & Bicca‐Marques, J. C. (2011) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.21009 · Cited by 9
“…and temporal availability of food resources can be a critical factor in primate foraging success in a forest environment, allowing foragers to exploit resources without spending time and energy in a random search [BiccaMarques & Garber, 2004; Dominy et al., 2001; Garber, 1989; Milton, 1981].”
Background
Alloparental behavior in a captive group of spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) at the Auckland zoo
Watt, S. L. (1994) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/bf02735239 · Cited by 8
The Lives of Others: Social Rationality in Animals
Stevens, J. R., & King, A. J. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0015 · Cited by 8
“In particular, food distribution, food extraction, and ranging patterns are correlated with various measurements of brain size in primates (Milton, 1981; Parker & Gibson, 1977).”
The Use of Spatial Structure in Working Memory: A Comparative Standpoint
Lillo, C. D. (2012) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230354456_3 · Cited by 8
Memory for Problem Solving: Comparative Studies in Attention, Working and Long-term Memory
Bobrowicz, K. (2019) · Lund University Publications (Lund University) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.21981.77281 · Cited by 8
Apples and oranges: The pitfalls of comparative intelligence
Savage, A., & Snowdon, C. T. (1989) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00057897 · Cited by 7
Inhibitory control tests in non‐human animals: validity, reliability, and perspectives
Loyant, L., Collins, L., & Joly, M. (2025) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.70055 · Cited by 10
“(2) Ecological intelligence hypothesis According to the “ ecological intelligence hypothesis ” (Milton, 1981), large brain size evolved to allow species to adjust their behaviour adaptively in response to foraging challenges.”
Symbolic Signal Use in Wild Chimpanzee Gestural Communication?: A Theoretical Framework
Cissewski, J., & Luncz, L. V. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718414 · Cited by 7
“Great apes and other nonhuman primates live in complex material and social environments (e.g., Milton, 1981; Russon and Begun, 2004; Cheney and Seyfarth, 2007).”
Background
Bridging the gap: assessing the effectiveness of rope bridges for wildlife in Singapore
Ow, S., Chan, S., Toh, Y. H., Chan, S. H., Lakshminarayanan, J., Jabbar, S., Ang, A., & Loo, A. H. B. (2022) · Folia Primatologica · doi:10.1163/14219980-20211110 · Cited by 7
Probabilistic Persuasion: A Brunswikian Theory of Argumentation
Reimer, T. O., Hertwig, R., & Sipek, S. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0004 · Cited by 9
Long-Term Spatial Memory and Learning Set Formation in Captive Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus libidinosus = Sapajus cay)
Tujague, M. P., Janson, C. H., & Lahitte, H. B. (2015) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-015-9878-5 · Cited by 7
“Although individual fruit trees have a stable location, tree species vary across time in their seasons of peak fruiting and maturation rates (Milton 1981).”
Do primates flexibly use spatio-temporal cues when foraging?
Trapanese, C., Meunier, H., & Masi, S. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820970724 · Cited by 6
“…continuous fruiting species (asynchronous species) to temporally segregated fruiting peaks, where each tree simultaneously produces fruits together with other members of the same species (synchronous species; Chapman et al., 1999, 2005; Hladik, 1975; Milton, 1980, 1981; van Schaik et al., 1993).”
Background
Social Learning: A Route to Good Cue Orders
García‐Retamero, R., Takezawa, M., Woike, J. K., & Gigerenzer, G. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0012 · Cited by 7
What Happened to Seri Sweets? Dietary Transition through Culinary Acculturation
Narchi, N. E., Marlett, C. M., & Hernández–Santana, G. (2020) · Journal of Ethnobiology · doi:10.2993/0278-0771-40.3.348 · Cited by 7
“Hominoids have an extremely long history of exploiting sweet and highly caloric foods (Milton 1981).”
Background
How the neurosensory system provides clues for the adaptive radiation of mammals
Bertrand, O., Michaud, M., & Kirk, E. C. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-27380-3.00019-1 · Cited by 6
The Heart Has Its Reasons: Social Rationality in Mate Choice
Lenton, A. P., Penke, L., Todd, P. M., & Fasolo, B. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0016 · Cited by 6
Cost-Benefit Trade-Offs of Aquatic Resource Exploitation in the Context of Hominin Evolution
de Chevalier, G., Bouret, S., Bardo, A., Simmen, B., Garcia, C., & Prat, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2022.812804 · Cited by 7
“The second hypothesis, i.e., the ecological brain hypothesis, seeks to explain the evolution of brain size and complex cognition primarily using ecological proxies (Milton, 1981, 1988; Rosati, 2017).”
Background
Competitive and cooperative aspects of social intelligence in chimpanzees
Hirata, S. (2007) · Japanese Journal of Animal Psychology · doi:10.2502/janip.57.1.1 · Cited by 6
MEMORIA ESPACIAL EN MONOS CAPUCHINOS DE ARGENTINA: UN ESTUDIO OBSERVACIONAL EN VIDA SILVESTRE
Tujague, M. P., Bacigalupe, M. D. L. Á., Lahitte, H. B., & Janson, C. H. (2016) · Americanae (AECID Library) · Cited by 6
Temporal cognition in Taï chimpanzees
Janmaat, K. R. L. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108674218.029 · Cited by 6
Cooperate with Equals: A Simple Heuristic for Social Exchange
Johnson, T., & Smirnov, O. A. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0005 · Cited by 6
King fails to distinguish among various kinds of extractive foraging, various kinds of object manipulation, and various kinds of cognition
Parker, S. T. (1987) · Human Evolution · doi:10.1007/bf02436499 · Cited by 6
Foraging with your eyes: a novel task to study cognitive strategies involved in (visual) foraging behaviour
Green, M. J., Segen, V., Korstjens, A. H., Meso, A. I., Thomas, T. T., & Wiener, J. M. (2025) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-025-01261-0 · Cited by 5
Numerical cognition in black-handed spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi)
Bosshard, T. C., Salazar, L. T. H., & Laska, M. (2022) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104734 · Cited by 5
“The complex spatiotemporal distribution of fruit, for example, has been suggested to require considerable cognitive abilities in order to remember the location of patchy food sources and to efficiently predict times and places to forage (Milton, 1981).”
Primate sympatry shapes the evolution of their brain architecture
Robira, B., & Perez‐Lamarque, B. (2023) · Peer Community Journal · doi:10.24072/pcjournal.259 · Cited by 3
Smarter foragers do not forage smarter: a test of the diet hypothesis for brain expansion
Hirsch, B. T., Kays, R., Alavi, S. E., Caillaud, D., Havmøller, R. W., Marés, R., & Crofoot, M. C. (2024) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2024.0138 · Cited by 5
“Milton [16] suggested that searching for fruit was a major selection pressure for the evolution of primate brain size because the spatiotemporal variance in the distribution of rainforest fruits creates a complex puzzle that frugivores must solve on a daily basis.”
Background
Primate Cognition
Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910626.001.0001 · Cited by 5
Route Planning Process by the Endangered Black Lion Tamarin in Different Environmental Contexts
Bufalo, F. S., Kaisin, O., Silva, A. S. D. A. E., Amaral, R. G., Messaoudi, Y., Alcolea, M., Zanette, E. M., Sabino, G. P., Börger, L., & Culot, L. (2024) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23702 · Cited by 5
“In the continuous forest, where BLTs used the largest area and traveled the largest distances daily to reach sparsely distributed resources, efficiently navigating through the landscape can be cognitively demanding (Milton 1981).”
Communication without language
Cissewski, J., & Boesch, C. (2016) · Gesture · doi:10.1075/gest.15.2.04cis · Cited by 5
Ecological variation in cognition: Insights from bonobos and chimpanzees
Rosati, A. G. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198728511.003.0011 · Cited by 6
“However, there are also compelling arguments for the importance of ecological environments in shaping cognition across taxa (Byrne, 1997; Gibson, 1986; Milton, 1981).”
Background
Spatial cognitive abilities in foraging chimpanzees
Ban, S. D., & Normand, E. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108674218.028 · Cited by 7
Darwin, deceit, and metacommunication
Altmann, S. A. (1988) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00049694 · Cited by 5
Tools for the Trees
Russon, A. E., Kuncoro, P., & Ferisa, A. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800648-1.00015-2 · Cited by 5
Tool use in Cebus: Its relation to object manipulation, the brain, and ecological adaptations
Chevalier‐Skolnikoff, S. (1989) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0007374x · Cited by 5
Misdescription and misuse of anecdotes and mental state concepts
Thomas, R. K. (1988) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00049931 · Cited by 5
The Structure of the Human Brain
Allen, J. C., Bruss, J., & Damásio, H. (2004) · American Scientist · doi:10.1511/2004.3.246 · Cited by 5
The Cerebellum: An Asset to Hominoid Cognition
MacLeod, C. E., Zilles, K., Schleicher, A., & Gibson, K. R. (2002) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47461-1_4 · Cited by 5
Evolution of Cognition
Vonk, J. M., & Aradhye, C. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802652-6.00035-9 · Cited by 6
“For instance, two popular hypotheses for the emergence of primate cognitive specializations have been the social intelligence hypothesis, which emphasizes the importance of group living and social complexity (Dunbar, 1998, 2009; Humphrey, 1976; Jolly, 1966), and the foraging/ecological hypothesis, which focuses on the…”
Background
Locomotor development and gap crossing behaviour in Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)
Phillips, A. C. (2012) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham) · Cited by 5
Primate tool use: But what about their brains?
Falk, D. (1989) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00073702 · Cited by 5
Models of Primate Evolution
Sayers, K. (2015) · Encyclopedia of Life Sciences · doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0026406 · Cited by 5
Linking the evolution of two prefrontal brain regions to social and foraging challenges in primates
Bouret, S., Paradis, E., Prat, S., Castro, L., Pérez, P., Gilissen, E., & Garcia, C. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.87780.4 · Cited by 4
Two variations and one similarity in memory functions deployed by mice and humans to support foraging
Talbot, S., Gerdjikov, T. V., & Lillo, C. D. (2021) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218211010576 · Cited by 4
“It can ripen and rot in a matter of hours (Milton, 1981).”
BackgroundResult
Wild Tibetan Macaques Use a Route‐Based Mental Map to Navigate in Large‐Scale Space
Cheng, S., Li, B., Garber, P. A., Xia, D., & Li, J. (2024) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23720 · Cited by 4
“…availability and distribution, the ability of foragers to encode, store, and recall information about the location of previously encountered feeding sites is critical for enhancing foraging success (Fagan et al. 2013; Milton 1981; Ranc et al. 2021; Robira et al. 2021; Rosati 2017; Garber 2024).”
The “Less-Is-More” Effect in Group Decision Making
Luan, S., Katsikopoulos, K. V., & Reimer, T. O. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388435.003.0010 · Cited by 4
Foraging efficiency and the fitness consequences of spatial marking by ladybeetle larvae
Meisner, M. H., & Ives, A. R. (2013) · Oikos · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2012.00224.x · Cited by 4
22 Development and Culture
Auletta, G. (2011) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199608485.003.0023 · Cited by 4
How can we apply decision‐making theories to wild animal behavior? Predictions arising from dual process theory and Bayesian decision theory
Teichroeb, J. A., Smeltzer, E. A., Mathur, V., Anderson, K. A., Fowler, E. J., Adams, F. V., Vasey, E. N., Kumpan, L. T., Stead, S. M., & Arseneau‐Robar, T. J. M. (2023) · American Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1002/ajp.23565 · Cited by 5
“There is a lot of evidence within the primate order that relying on fruit presents more complex problems to animals than relying on leaves (Milton, 1981) and that this has contributed to the cognitive development of frugivores (DeCasien et al., 2017; DeCasien & Higham, 2019).”
General Introduction
Tomasello, M., & Call, J. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198910626.003.0001 · Cited by 4
Mandrills learn two-day time intervals in a naturalistic foraging situation
Ozturk, K. C. D., Egas, M., & Janmaat, K. R. L. (2020) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-020-01451-7 · Cited by 4
Potential Distribution of Primates in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico Under Current and Climate Change Scenarios
Ramos‐Fernández, G., Espadas‐Manrique, C., & Serio‐Silva, J. C. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8839-2_32 · Cited by 4
Lies, damned lies and anecdotal evidence
Humphrey, N. K. (1988) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00049827 · Cited by 4
Evolution of Community and Humanity from Primatological Viewpoints
Yamagiwa, J. (2018) · Creative economy · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-6478-4_19 · Cited by 4
Spatial memory in capuchin monkeys (Argentina): a wildlife observational study
Tujague, M. P., Bacigalupe, M. D. L. Á., Lahitte, H. B., & Janson, C. H. (2016) · Revista Argentina de Antropología Biológica · doi:10.17139/raab.2016.0018.01.01 · Cited by 10
What's the tool and where's the goal?
Bard, K. A., & Vauclair, J. (1989) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0005771x · Cited by 4

Authors: MILTON, K.
Affiliations: University of California, Berkeley (US)
Corresponding author: MILTON, KATHARINE
Venue: American Anthropologist
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 1981-09
Volume: 83
Issue: 3
Pages: 534-548
ISSN: 0002-7294 (ISSN-L)
1548-1433
DOI: 10.1525/aa.1981.83.3.02a00020
OpenAlex: W2113940759
Cited by: 501
References: 46
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 39
FWCI: 5.86
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor, 10284 d)
Locations: American Anthropologist (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Primate Behavior and Ecology
Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Language and cultural evolution
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Keywords: foraging behavior, howler monkeys, spider monkeys, Alouatta, social learning, kin selection, hominin evolution, evolution of intelligence

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Distribution Patterns of Tropical Plant Foods as an Evolutionary Stimulus to Primate Mental Development

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks