Dispositional mindfulness and the process of mindfulness cultivation: a qualitative synthesis and critical assessment of the extant literature on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)
Open accessAbstract
Background: Over the last decades, mindfulness has become an important concept and topic for many professions and interventional research. While the number of available self-report scales and empirical studies on the concept of mindfulness has increased in recent years, some questions regarding its theoretical underpinnings still remain. Objective: The goal of this systematic review and qualitative synthesis was to investigate the distinction of cultivated and dispositional mindfulness. We focused on research with the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) as it is both comprehensive (building on and incorporating other important mindfulness scales) and widely used. Data Sources: Journal articles and dissertations listed in Google Scholar, ProQuest, Scopus, Web of Science, and World Cat from January 2006 until January 2020. Review Methods: 172 studies were identified and systematically analyzed in a two-step iterative qualitative coding framework with three main categories of interest: FFMQ and its facets, dispositional mindfulness, cultivated mindfulness. Results: We offer a broad summary of the extant literature on the concepts of dispositional and cultivated mindfulness in terms of their definition, the practice of mindfulness, their state and trait aspects, and their assessment with self-report scales. Based on this evidence, inference on cultivated and dispositional aspects in the individual FFMQ facets is also presented and discussed. Conclusion: Mindfulness cultivation is a process induced by mindfulness practice. Dispositional mindfulness functions as a baseline for this process. We argue that each FFMQ facet mixes cultivation and disposition, which might limit their usability in intervention studies or when comparing meditators and non-meditators. Future research should pay more attention on the cultivated and dispositional aspects of mindfulness, for which we offer venues and recommendations.
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According to Burzler and Tran's proposed model, mindfulness cultivation involves progressive developments in observing, describing, and acting with awareness, which then stimulates further development of nonjudgment and nonreactivity.
“According to Burzler and Tran’s [61] proposed model of mindfulness development with respect to the five facets model, mindfulness cultivation involves progressive developments in OBS, DES, and AAW facets, indicating enhanced attentional deployment, which then stimulates further development of the NJU and NRE facets.”
From Mindful Nonreactivity, Anxiety, Depression, and Perceived Stress as Mediators of the Mindfulness Virtual Community Intervention—Pathways to Enhance Mental Health in University Students: Secondary Evaluation of Two Randomized Controlled Trials With Student Participants (2025) · cites this paper as [61]
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Malin, Y. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02150-3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“If mindfulness is cultivated and becomes stable, it can be described as “trait * Yael Malin Yael.malin@mail.huji.ac.il 1 Seymour Fox School of Education, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel 1 3 mindfulness” which unlike dispositional mindfulness is nonconstant (Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
BackgroundConsciously Connected: The Role of Mindfulness for Mobile Phone Connectedness and Stress
Hefner, D., & Freytag, A. (2024) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2023.2253732 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“…accepting, and nonjudgmental (Baer, 2018; Brown et al., 2007; Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Kudesia & Nyima, 2015) Individuals differ in their degree of mindfulness, a) due to their disposition for it and b) due to their cultivation of it by means of contemplative practices (Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
BackgroundInfluentialSieder, K., Thiedmann, P., Voracek, M., & Tran, U. S. (2024) · Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12550 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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Wang, Z., Yip, C. C. H., Leung, D. C. K., & Chan, K. K. S. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02111-w · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“While people have the inherent capacity to be mindful in daily life (i.e., dispositional mindfulness), they can cultivate mindfulness through long-term meditation practice (i.e., cultivated mindfulness) (Burzler & Tran, 2022; Duan & Li, 2016).”
BackgroundFendel, J. C., Bürkle, J. J., & Schmidt, S. (2025) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2025.00052 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Trait mindfulness re fl ects a person ’ s general tendency to experience mindful states in everyday life and includes both inherent (i.e., dispositional) aspects and mindfulness cultivated through practice (Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
Borghi, O., Voracek, M., & Tran, U. S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1272720 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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Almenräder, F., Heßmann, G., Voracek, M., & Tran, U. S. (2024) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070241289160 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Yet, more detailed investigations into dispositional versus cultivated mindfulness, which is highly relevant for intervention studies, and their valid assessment currently are also needed (Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
InfluentialSelf-citationWalach, H., Sauer, S., Kohls, N., Rose, N., & Schmidt, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03671-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Furthermore, there is some evidence that one of the other frequently used mindfulness scales, the Five Facts Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), also conforms to such a temporal two-component model [39].”
Pirbaglou, M., El Morr, C., Ahmad, F., & Ritvo, P. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/65853 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“According to Burzler and Tran’s [61] proposed model of mindfulness development with respect to the five facets model, mindfulness cultivation involves progressive developments in OBS, DES , and AAW facets, indicating enhanced attentional deployment, which then stimulates further development of the…”
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“Inspired by Burzler and Tran (2022), the mean state-4FMQ total score was expected to be greater as meditation experience increases (i.e., those with current or past meditation experience should, on average, be more mindful in daily life than non-meditators) as assessed by an ANOVA on the Level 2…”
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Ganster, F. M., Schwartz, K., Voracek, M., & Tran, U. S. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113299 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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“…Health and Psychological Crisis Intervention, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China 1 3 important impacts on an individual's emotion regulation, cognitive flexibility, and psychological well-being (Brown et al., 2007; Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
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Kleszewski, E., Wehrt, W., Otto, K., Matick, E., & Kottwitz, M. (2025) · Journal of business and psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-025-10033-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Studies underscore that nonjudging and nonreacting require longer practice to be cultivated, while observing develops immediately (e.g., Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
Wu, H. P. C., & Mak, W. W. S. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02609-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“More recent research argued that non-mindfulness exercises, such as re-perceiving trainings (Ausiàs Baer, 2019; Burzler & Tran, 2022; Cebolla et al., 2018), may also cultivate skills such as awareness of thoughts and feelings as well as the orientation to experience—both of which are theoretical…”
Tian, W., Qi, J., & Derakhshan, A. (2025) · International Journal of Multilingualism · doi:10.1080/14790718.2025.2587813 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This reduces anxiety and self-criticism, fostering a more positive learning atmosphere and encouraging learners to view mistakes as part of the learning journey (Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
The Differential Effect of Oxytocin on Mindfulness in People with Different Resilience Level
Lau, W. K., Sánchez-Vidaña, D. I., Tai, A. P.-L., Chan, J. N.-M., Ngan, L. H.-M., Leung, M.-K., & Lau, B. W.-M. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02186-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lutz, S., Schneider, F. M., Halfmann, A., Freytag, A., & Hefner, D. (2025) · Mobile Media & Communication · doi:10.1177/20501579251370458 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This might be explained in two different ways: fi rst, individuals differ not only in their degree of dispositional trait mindfulness but also because they cultivate mindfulness through contemplative practices (Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
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“Levels of dispositional mindfulness are not stable throughout life and can change and expand with increased mindfulness activity (Burzler & Tran, 2022 ).”
Bharti, T., & Ojha, S. (2024) · Global Knowledge Memory and Communication · doi:10.1108/gkmc-02-2024-0101 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Thiedmann, P., Dejardin, F., Reiter, L., & Tran, U. S. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02575-y · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“However, trait meditative mindfulness does neither equate to, nor necessarily follow only from, meditation practice (for a review of dispositional vs. cultivated aspects of trait meditative mind-fulness, see also Burzler & Tran, 2022).”
Self-citationSoriano, J. R., de Oca, E. B. M., Karaiskou, A.-Ι., et al. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3377138/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Krägeloh, C. U., & Medvedev, O. N. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-0821-5_6-1
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Suzuki, K., & Laurent, H. K. (2026) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.70153
“…one’s general ability to be mindful in daily life, as opposed to momentary state mindfulness or mindfulness cultivated through formal practice (Burzler and Tran 2022 )—was associated with greater autonomic coordination (RSA cross-correlations) during free play at 3 months postpartum…”
Liu, X., Chen, J. K., Zhu, M., & Chen, X. (2026) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.70281
Burzler, M. A., Grund, S., & Tran, U. S. (2026) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-026-02946-z
Self-citationHidalgo-Fuentes, S., Martínez-Álvarez, I., González-Pérez, E., & Llamas-Salguero, F. (2026) · Psychology, Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2026.2731629
- Authors
- Burzler, M. A., & Tran, U. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Vienna (AT)
- Venue
- Collabra Psychology
- Publisher
- University of California Press
- Published
- 2022
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2474-7394 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4312324410
- Cited by
- 33
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 5
- FWCI
- 6.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Collabra Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Keywords
- trait mindfulness, Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, mindfulness facets, mindfulness practice, self-report scale, meditators, mindfulness-based interventions
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