Parenting attitudes and infant spanking: The influence of childhood experiences
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVES: To assess associations among maternal childhood experiences and subsequent parenting attitudes and use of infant spanking (IS), and determine if attitudes mediate the association between physical abuse exposure and IS. METHODS: We performed a prospective study of women who received prenatal care at community health centers in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Sociodemographic characteristics, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), attitudes toward corporal punishment (CP), and IS use were assessed via face-to-face interviews, conducted at the first prenatal care visit, 3 months postpartum, and 11 months postpartum. Bivariate and multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted. RESULTS: The sample consisted of 1265 mostly black, low-income women. Nineteen percent of the participants valued CP as a means of discipline, and 14% reported IS use. Mothers exposed to childhood physical abuse and verbal hostility were more likely to report IS use than those not exposed (16% vs 10%, P = .002; 17% vs 12%, P = .02, respectively). In the adjusted analyses, maternal exposure to physical abuse, other ACEs, and valuing CP were independently associated with IS use. Attitudes that value CP did not mediate these associations. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers who had childhood experiences of violence were more likely to use IS than mothers without such experiences. Intergenerational transmission of CP was evident. Mothers who had experienced physical abuse as a child, when compared to those who had not, were 1.5 times more likely to use IS. Child discipline attitudes and maternal childhood experiences should be discussed early in parenting in order to prevent IS use, particularly among at-risk mothers.
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Studies examining additive effects of multiple maltreatment experiences consistently indicated that a history of childhood abuse, neglect, and/or interparental violence was associated with greater likelihood of perpetrating physical abuse or neglect on one's children.
“Studies in which the additive effects of multiple maltreatment experiences were examined consistently indicated that a history of childhood abuse, neglect, and/or interparental violence was associated with greater likelihood of perpetrating physical abuse or neglect on one’s children”
From Intergenerational effects of childhood maltreatment: A systematic review of the parenting practices of adult survivors of childhood abuse, neglect, and violence. (2020) · cites this paper as Chung et al., 2009
The Results and Discussion report that mothers with two or more adverse childhood experiences were more likely to spank their 11-month-old infants. That supports an association with a form of physical punishment, but the study did not assess childhood neglect or whether mothers perpetrated physical abuse or neglect of their children. It also cannot establish that multiple studies consistently found the claimed result. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSeveral studies document a dose response in which multiple types of childhood victimization and/or repeated instances of maltreatment were associated with the greatest risk of adult perpetration.
“Several studies document a dose response in which multiple types of childhood victimization and/or repeated instances of maltreatment were associated with the greatest risk of adult perpetration”
From Intergenerational effects of childhood maltreatment: A systematic review of the parenting practices of adult survivors of childhood abuse, neglect, and violence. (2020) · cites this paper as Chung et al., 2009
The Results (page unavailable) report that increasing numbers of adverse childhood experiences were associated with higher rates of infant spanking, and the Discussion reports a 1.6-times higher likelihood among mothers with at least two such experiences. The study supports a dose-response association for this specific form of adult behavior, but it does not establish the broader claim about adult perpetration or a dose response for repeated instances of maltreatment. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAttitudes related to corporal punishment did not moderate relationships between childhood abuse/neglect and physical punishment.
“nor did attitudes related to corporal punishment (Chung et al., 2009).”
From Intergenerational effects of childhood maltreatment: A systematic review of the parenting practices of adult survivors of childhood abuse, neglect, and violence. (2020) · cites this paper as Chung et al., 2009
The Methods (Statistical Analysis) test whether corporal-punishment attitudes mediated the association between childhood physical abuse and infant spanking, and the Discussion says they did not. Mediation is distinct from moderation; the passages do not report a moderation test. The study also does not identify neglect among the childhood experiences it measured. (LLM, conf=0.76)
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“, 1999; Straus & Stewart, 1999), lower education level (Ateah & Durrant, 2005), race (Straus & Stewart, 1999), and greater exposure to CP during childhood (Chung et al., 2009; Gagne, Tourigny, Joly, & PouliotLapointe, 2007; Xu, Tung, & Dunaway, 2000).”
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Traube, D. E., Gozalians, S. A., & Duan, L. (2021) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21957 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…vulnerable families against early childhood risk factors and adverse childhood experiences (Shonkoff, 2016) that can negatively influence lifelong health, relationships (Madigan et al., 2016), and parenting (Chung et al., 2009; Duffee et al., 2017;Madigan et al., 2016; Szilagyi et al., 2015).”
BackgroundRibaudo, J., Lawler, J. M., Jester, J. M., Riggs, J. L., Erickson, N. L., Stacks, A. M., Brophy‐Herb, H. E., Muzik, M., & Rosenblum, K. L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.792989 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Shin, S. H., Tomlinson, C. A., Nelson-Hence, D., & Jiskrova, G. K. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221120884 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…et al., 2021; Nidey et al., 2020) and alcohol and substance abuse (Currie et al., 2020; Hughes et al., 2017; Racine et al., 2020), which further increases risk for the child, such as the use of harsh parenting/discipline practices (Chung et al., 2009; Greene et al., 2020; Oosterman et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAfrican American Mothers' Self-Described Discipline Strategies with Young Children
LeCuyer, E. A., Christensen, J. J., Kearney, M. H., & Kitzman, H. J. (2011) · Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.3109/01460862.2011.596457 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“How parents were parented themselves will influence their own parenting and adoption of disciplinary behaviors (Belsky et al., 2009; Chung et al., 2009; Kovan et al., 2009; Levac, McCay, Merka, & Reddon-D’Arcy, 2008); this was evident in these mother’s statements about their own mothers’ parenting.”
BackgroundKemme, S., Hanslmaier, M., & Pfeiffer, C. (2014) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-013-9564-3 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Adkins, T., Reisz, S., Doerge, K., & Nulu, S. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104475 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Rodriguez, C. M., Silvia, P. J., Gonzalez, S., & Christl, M.-E. (2018) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559518767571 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“, 2010; Smith, Cross, Winkler, Jovanovic, & Bradley, 2014) or longitudinal designs that either assess the proposed mediator/moderator at a single time point (e.g., Appleyard et al., 2011; Berlin et al., 2011; Chung et al., 2009; Herrenkohl, Klika et al., 2013; Schofield et al., 2016) or collapsed across time points (e.”
BackgroundInfluentialDoi, S. K., Isumi, A., & Fujiwara, T. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105590 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Lange, B. C. L., Condon, E. M., & Gardner, F. E. M. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.05.004 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Is the Use of Physical Discipline Associated with Aggressive Behaviors in Young Children?
Thompson, R., Kaczor, K., Lorenz, D. J., Bennett, B. L., Meyers, G., & Pierce, M. C. (2016) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2016.02.014 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Brockie, T., Haroz, E. E., Nelson, K. E., Cwik, M. F., Decker, E., Ricker, A., Littlepage, S., Mayhew, J., Wilson, D. H., Wetsit, L., et al. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-12272-9 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Russa, M. B., Rodriguez, C. M., & Silvia, P. J. (2013) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21500 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Grumi, S., Milani, L., & Blasio, P. D. (2017) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.04.009 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Addressing Parental Adverse Childhood Experiences in the Pediatric Setting
Gupta, R. C., Randell, K. A., & Dowd, M. D. (2021) · Advances in Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.yapd.2021.05.003 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Jahng, K. E. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104324 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Xiao, Z., Obsuth, I., Meinck, F., & Murray, A. L. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-023-00572-4 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Clemens, V., Berthold, O., Witt, A., Brähler, E., Plener, P. L., & Fegert, J. M. (2020) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.2623 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Sanders, M. R., Burke, K., Prinz, R. J., & Morawska, A. (2017) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-017-0233-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Prguda, E., & Burke, K. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104226 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Afifi, T. O., Salmon, S., Stewart-Tufescu, A., & Taillieu, T. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191710580 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“It is also known that individuals who have experienced child maltreatment are more likely to hold supportive physical punishment beliefs [35] and be more likely to spank their own children [36].”
BackgroundYang, Y., Cheng, J., & Liu, P. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.11.057 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
How Do Knowledge and Attitudes About Children’s Rights Influence Spanking Attitudes?
Gallitto, E., Veilleux, G. J., & Romano, E. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519852631 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Preliminary Support for the Theory of Planned Behavior in Pre-Parent Discipline Intentions
Fleming, T. C., & Borrego, J. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01331-w · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Childhood Maltreatment and Parental Attitudes Regarding the Use of Corporal Punishment
Walker, H. E., Diemer, M. C., & Wamser‐Nanney, R. A. (2022) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-022-02279-0 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…study also included undergraduate students (26.5%), and it is possible that this group within our sample may be more resilient than community-based (Chung et al., 2009) or higher risk samples (e.g., women in shelters) given that they have the presence of additional protective factors (e.g.,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialZanelatto, P. F., Medeiros, M., Santos, W. S., & Munari, D. B. (2012) · Ciencia y enfermería/Ciencia y enfermería · doi:10.4067/s0717-95532012000200005 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Martin, A., Muñoz, J. M., Braza, P., Ruiz-Ortiz, R. M., del Puerto‐Golzarri, N., Pascual‐Sagastizábal, E., Azurmendi, A., & Carreras, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573329 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Merrick, J., Labella, M. H., Narayan, A. J., Desjardins, C. D., Barnes, A. J., & Masten, A. S. (2020) · Children · doi:10.3390/children7040033 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Additionally, adverse experiences in childhood are associated with problems in romantic relationship functioning [13–15] and parenting behavior [16,17], contributing to patterns of intergenerational continuity in family adversity [18,19].”
BackgroundMitani, H. (2021) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.12893 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Tabares, Á. S. G. (2023) · psicología desde el caribe · doi:10.14482/psdc.38.3.362.28 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Adverse childhood experiences in children with neurodevelopmental disorders and their parents
Davidsson, M., Ringström, F., Hagberg, B. S., Gillberg, C., & Billstedt, E. (2025) · Nordic Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/08039488.2025.2469737 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“It has been suggested that parental ACEs are associated with children’s developmental delay and health problems through intergenerational transmission [15,16], possibly through parent mental health or parenting practices [17,18].”
Parenting and Child Rearing Attitudes of Unmarried Hispanic Teenage Mothers
Smith, M. L., Chiappone, A. L., & Wilson, K. L. (2016) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-016-0582-7 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Moral Disengagement and the Propensity to Endorse Physical Punishment Practices
Houwing, F., & Bussey, K. (2016) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-016-0643-y · Cited by 8 · see citing works
From adverse childhood experiences to harsh parenting: Psychological symptoms as a mediator
Shen, A. C., & Wu, B. C. Y. (2024) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106672 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Erickson, N. L., Flynn, J. M., & Kim, H. G. (2022) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-021-03345-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Psychometric Evaluation of a Brief Assessment of Parents’ Disciplinary Alternatives
Rodriguez, C. M., Wittig, S. M. O., & Christl, M.-E. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01387-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Childhood: Cognitive Development
Miller, S. A. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190874513.003.0006 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Brown, S., Carbone, J. T., Hicks, L. M., Saini, E. K., Panisch, L. S., & Dayton, C. J. (2023) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-023-00555-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…to greater parenting stress (Rowell & Neal-Barnett, 2022), negative parenting behaviors (Kolomeyer et al., 2016), harsh parenting attitudes (Treat et al., 2019), infant spanking (Chung et al., 2009), and higher acceptance of harmful parenting practices such as infant shaking (Clemens et al., 2020).”
Perception of Physical Child Abuse Among Parents and Professionals in a French Emergency Department
Bailhache, M., Alioum, A., & Salmi, L. (2017) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260517705663 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“, 2010), alcohol use (Altschul & Lee, 2011), marital status (Cappa & Khan, 2011), mother’s age, education level (Altschul & Lee, 2011; Cappa & Khan, 2011), and childhood experience of violence (Chung et al., 2009; Gagné, Tourigny, Joly, & Pouliot-Lapointe, 2007; Taylor et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMothering very young children after wartime deployment: A case report
Acker, M., Nicholson, J. H., & DeVoe, E. R. (2020) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21837 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Magariño, L. S., Evans, M. C., Duong, J. B., Villodas, F. M., & Villodas, M. T. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104810 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Duong, H. T. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211035879 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Mothers exposed to childhood physical abuse are more likely to report NP18270 Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(19-20)Duong 5 infant spanking (Chung et al., 2009).”
BackgroundHelping Parents Spare the Rod: Addressing Their Unbearable Emotions
Hoffman, L., & Prout, T. A. (2020) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.2020.1690867 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“” Some parents spank frequently because they themselves were treated harshly as children and spanked themselves (Chung et al. 2009); others spank because their level of frustration does not allow them to utilize other techniques.”
BackgroundGüzel, H. Ş., & Osmanoğlu, R. M. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05231-7 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Negative life experiences such as not getting enough warmth in childhood from parents can be transferred to the next generations through channels such as parental mental health and parental practices (Chung et al., 2009; Schicked-anzet al., 2018).”
Policies and Services Affecting Parenting
Burke, K., Haslam, D. M., & Butler, K. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94598-9_24 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Wamser‐Nanney, R. A., & Cherry, K. E. (2020) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2019.1710640 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…of parenting (Banyard et al., 2003; Chemtob et al., 2013; Cohen et al., 2008; Creech et al., 2017; Sprang et al., 2013) and non-Criterion A stressors have also corresponded with more negative indices of parenting (Bert et al., 2009; Chung et al., 2009; Hughes & Cossar, 2016; Pereira et al., 2012).”
BackgroundKaferly, J. G., Furniss, A., & Allison, M. A. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104662 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Duong, H. T. (2021) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/10901981211052881 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Towards a Comprehensive, Evidence-Based System of Parenting Support over the Lifespan
Sanders, M. R., & Burke, K. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94598-9_34 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Implementing a Trauma‐Informed Parenting Program in Urban Schools Serving High Poverty Communities
Yu, Z., Gross, D. A., Wyatt, K., Cunningham, E., Hoppe, E. R., Chen, W., Plesko, C. M., Bower, K. M., & Bettencourt, A. F. (2025) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.23466 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Assistência de enfermagem a criança e ao adolescente em situação de violência doméstica
de Melo, R. A., Souza, S. D. L., Bezerra, C. S., & Fernandes, F. E. C. V. (2016) · ID on line REVISTA DE PSICOLOGIA · doi:10.14295/idonline.v10i32.577 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
An Analytical Study on the Violence Against Children During Covid-19 Period in Bangladesh
Shahen, M. A. (2022) · International Journal of Qualitative Research · doi:10.47540/ijqr.v2i1.456 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“In Bangladesh, children are routinely subjected to corporal punishment (CP), which is becoming more common (Chung et al., 2009).”
BackgroundEl.Makzoum, H. (2015) · UPT. Syiah Kuala University Library (Syiah Kuala University) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Corporal Punishment: Global Perspectives
Sungwa, R. S., Jackson, L., & Kahembe, J. (2022) · Springer briefs in education · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-1569-7_2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Caregiver trauma exposure and the caregiver-child relationship: Exploring the role of stress
Beyer, M. S., Howell, K. H., Gilliam, H. C., & Bartelli, D. (2024) · Journal of Family Trauma Child Custody & Child Development · doi:10.1080/26904586.2023.2295333 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Attitudes Toward Corporal Punishment
Weisenhorn, D. A. (2017) · UKnowledge (University of Kentucky) · doi:10.13023/etd.2017.293 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…of corporal punishment include low socioeconomic status, high parental stress, single parenting, young parents, sex (boys), ethnicity (African American), and high religiosity (Chung et al., 2009; Combs-Orme & Cain, 2008; DeaterDeckard, et al., 2003; Regalado et al., 2004; Straus et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialWork, Poverty, and Financial Stress
Haslam, D. M., & Burke, K. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94598-9_21 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A consilient, multi-level model of corporal punishment
Michalski, J. H. (2024) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1007/s11186-024-09562-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Those who have experienced post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are more likely both to believe in the utility of CP as a valid disciplinary approach (e.g., Walker et al., 2022) and to engage in the use of CP and even child abuse (Chung et al., 2009 ; Shin et al., 2023).”
Morgan, C. H., Rodriguez, C. M., Pu, D. F., & Elkins, Z. O. (2025) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-024-00799-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Mothers with a greater personal history of physical punishment and verbal hostility are more likely to report spanking as their choice of discipline as well as beliefs that favor PCA use (Chung et al., 2009).”
- Authors
- Chung, E. K., Mathew, L., Rothkopf, A. C., Elo, I. T., Coyne, J. C., & Culhane, J. F.
- Affiliations
- Alfred I. duPont Hospital for Children (US)
- Drexel University (US)
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Venue
- Pediatrics
- Publisher
- American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
- Published
- 2009-08-01
- Volume
- 124
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- e278-e286
- ISSN
- 0031-4005 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-4275
- PMC
- PMC3760718
- OpenAlex
- W2130031838
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 2.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- PEDIATRICS (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (TS-286-14/14)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD036462, 1-RO1-HD36462-01A1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Keywords
- corporal punishment, parenting attitudes, adverse childhood experiences, child physical abuse, verbal aggression, intergenerational transmission, maternal discipline, prenatal care, postpartum women
- MeSH terms
- Aggression, Attitude, Child Abuse, Child Rearing, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Health Surveys, Humans, Infant, Mothers, Poverty, Pregnancy, Punishment, Risk Factors, Philadelphia, Parenting, Domestic Violence
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