Cited by 13Afro-Latin American StudiesHistory and Politics in Latin AmericaColonialism, slavery, and trade

The DOI matches its Crossref record, with a small difference in title or year; 12 of the 12 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 23 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Freedom in the Rainforest. The formation of a black peasantry in Colombia’s Pacific Coast, 1850-1930

Open access
Leal León, Claudia María·2016·Revista CS

Abstract

This article reconstructs the basis on which the black peasantry of the Colombian Pacific was formed after the end of slavery. The descendants of slaves managed to become independent producers, rather than a rural proletariat, through access that had not only the land but also to the forest, water and underground. These peasants were not primarily farmers; extracting gold, ivory palm and rubber to sell it to white traders, who exported. In the context of this extractive economy, freedom meant to achieve control over the territory and work processes. However, yet we need to recognize the contributions that these citizens made the construction of Colombia on the basis of their freedom.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This article argues that the abolition of slavery on Colombia's Pacific coast produced an unusual black peasantry whose freedom rested not on farmland but on autonomous control of an extractive economy (gold, platinum, rubber, tagua) across a vast rainforest territory. That same economic marginality and the racialized landscape ideology of white elites both enabled a broad freedom and, in the long run, constrained Afro-descendants' life options and national membership.

Key findings

  • The Pacific lowlands — a 1,300 km strip between Panama and Ecuador — became perhaps the largest territory in Latin America inhabited mainly by black people; whites were no more than 5% of the population, and by the end of the 18th century free people of color were about 50% of the population, with Afro-descendants (including the enslaved) over two-thirds.
  • Self-purchase (auto-manumisión) was the dominant route to freedom: manumissions by purchase accounted for around 60% and possibly more of the total (Leal, 2006: 204, 332), and the 1851 abolition law freed less than 10% of the region's population.
  • Post-emancipation black peasants combined subsistence activities (maize, plantain, fishing, hunting, forest gathering) with extraction for market, effectively subsidizing the natural-resource trade with their subsistence labor; debt with local merchants acted as an incentive to compete for scarce labor rather than as coercion.
  • Racialized landscape ideology — elites viewing black people as naturally suited to a chaotic, unhealthy forest and unfit for urban civilized life — limited the reach of freedom; the 1907 execution of Manuel Saturio Valencia in Quibdó exemplifies these tensions, and only the 1991 Constitution and Law 70 of 1993 granted collective titling to black rural communities.

Methods

  • Historical study of the Colombian Pacific coast from 1850 to 1930, framed through two concepts: "extractive economy" and "racialized landscape," bridging African diaspora studies and environmental history.
  • Draws on archival sources (notarial land records, government reports, local newspapers, traveler and clerical accounts) plus extensive secondary literature; the article revisits central arguments from a larger investigation on environment and black people of the Colombian Pacific.
  • Comparative analysis situates the case against plantation-centered cases in Brazil and the Caribbean, and against Colombia's Caribbean coast, Cauca, Amazonia, Suriname, and Belize.

Limitations

  • The paper states no formal limitations section. It does acknowledge that no complete record of manumission letters (cartas de manumisión) exists, so the ~60% purchase figure rests on surviving evidence that "suggests" that level.
  • Evident from the text: the argument relies heavily on secondary scholarship and on elite-produced sources (newspapers, official reports, travelers) for the racialized-landscape discussion, and the quantitative population figures are drawn from cited census compilations (Tovar Pinzón et al., 1994) rather than original enumeration.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.18046/recs.i20.1861

Cites

12 of 12 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

0 of 23 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    For the first time a small white local elite shared the same small space with a black majority.

    “Por primera vez una pequeña elite local blanca compartió el mismo pequeño espacio con una mayoría negra.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation
    § Paisajes racializados

    Neither mining nor the collection of forest products gave rise to wide deforestation, like that which characterized the expansion of sugar cane in Cuba, coffee in Brazil, and banana in Honduras.

    “Ni la minería ni la recolección de productos del bosque dieron lugar a una amplia deforestación, como la que caracterizó a la expansión de los cultivos de caña de azúcar en Cuba, café en Brasil y banano en Honduras (Dean, 1997;Funes, 2004;Soluri, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dean, 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Funes, 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Soluri, 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    Unlike what happened in other parts of Latin America during the export boom of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the landscape produced by the occupation of this region and the associated use of its resources did not dramatically alter its natural base.

    “A diferencia de lo sucedido en otras partes de América Latina durante el auge exportador de finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX, el paisaje producido por la ocupación de esta región y el uso asociado de sus recursos no alteró dramáticamente su base natural.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    Elites thought that black people belonged to the jungle, not to the cities.

    “Las élites pensaban que la gente negra pertenecía a la selva, no a las ciudades.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    Agriculture did not produce extensive clearing of the jungle.

    “La agricultura tampoco produjo una extensa tala de la selva.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 37
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 34
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    For the white local elite, black cultural manifestations went against civilized urban life and therefore should be eliminated from these spaces.

    “Para los miembros de la elite local blanca, las manifestaciones culturales negras iban en contra de la vida urbana civilizada y por lo tanto debían ser eliminadas de estos espacios.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    Alluvial mining implies total elimination of forest cover, but only in relatively small spaces; when a mine is abandoned, vegetation usually recovers.

    “La minería aluvial implica la eliminación total de la cubierta forestal, pero solo en espacios relativamente pequeños; cuando se abandona una mina, la vegetación suele recuperarse.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Conclusión

    Thus, although they had the right to access various valuable natural resources, for example, with the recognition of traditional mining in the Mining Code, they did not achieve legal ownership of the lands they occupied.

    “Así, aunque tuvieron derecho al acceso a diversos recursos naturales valiosos, por ejemplo, con el reconocimiento a la minería tradicional en el Código de Minas, no lograron ser dueños legales de las tierras que ocupaban.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    It seems this man was the last person on whom the death penalty was imposed in the country.

    “Parece ser que este hombre fue la última persona a quien fue impuesta la pena de muerte en el país.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Conclusión

    They saw the end of slavery as a gift from enlightened elites motivated by the highest ideals, but that had unwanted consequences such as freeing a lazy and ignorant population.

    “Vieron el fin de la esclavitud como un obsequio de élites ilustradas motivado por los más altos ideales, pero que tuvo consecuencias indeseadas como dejar en libertad a una población perezosa e ignorante.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    They thought that the abundance of the environment reinforced laziness, which according to them was an innate characteristic of the majority of the inhabitants of the Pacific.

    “Pensaban que la abundancia del entorno reforzaba la pereza que, según ellos, era una característica innata de la mayoría de los habitantes del Pacífico.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    With their migrations and work, Afrodescendants created a landscape that could be appreciated navigating by canoe through the many rivers that cross the jungle.

    “Con sus migraciones y trabajo los afrodescendientes crearon un paisaje que podía apreciarse navegando en canoa por los muchos ríos que atraviesan la selva.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Introducción

    Los afrodescendientes del Pacífico no produjeron alimentos para el mercado regional, sino que extrajeron oro y otros recursos naturales para exportación.

    “A diferencia de otros lugares donde también surgieron economías campesinas, los afrodescendientes del Pacífico no se dedicaron a producir alimentos para el mercado regional, sino a extraer oro y otros recursos naturales para exportación.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    This strategy, together with the creation of primary schools by the State, led to the formation of hamlets.

    “Esta estrategia, junto con la creación de escuelas primarias por parte del Estado, llevó a la formación de caseríos.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    This type of agriculture was carried out in limited spaces and allowed the regeneration of the jungle, since it depends on the jungle itself for nutrients.

    “Este tipo de agricultura se llevó a cabo en espacios limitados y permitió la regeneración de la selva, ya que depende de la selva misma para los nutrientes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    They dreamed of molding their societies from European examples, achieving the ideal of civilization by imposing values and models associated with whiteness.

    “Ellas soñaban con moldear sus sociedades a partir de ejemplos europeos, logrando el ideal de la civilización mediante la imposición de valores y modelos asociados con la blancura.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    By 1920 these places barely had five thousand inhabitants and, more than proper cities, aspired to be so.

    “Hacia 1920 estos lugares apenas tenían unos cinco mil habitantes y más que ciudades propiamente dichas, aspiraban a serlo.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    This supposed relationship between black people and the environment represented, in the thought of these elites, an obstacle for the future of the region, since these settlers were considered a necessary evil.

    “Esta supuesta relación entre la gente negra y el medio ambiente representaba, en el pensamiento de estas élites, un obstáculo para para el futuro de la región, ya que estos pobladores eran considerados un mal necesario.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    The port city of Quibdó developed on the margins of the Atrato River, while Tumaco grew on an island off the Pacific coast, near the border with Ecuador.

    “La ciudad portuaria de Quibdó se desarrolló en los márgenes del río Atrato, mientras que Tumaco creció en una isla frente a la costa del Pacífico, cerca de la frontera con Ecuador.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    Afrodescendants constituted the majority of the population of the emerging cities of the region.

    “Pero los afrodescendientes constituían la mayoría de la población de las ciudades emergentes de la región.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    The diverse crops surrounding the houses denoted the distinction between native vegetation and domesticated plants.

    “Del mismo modo, los cultivos diversos que las rodeaban denotaban la distinción entre vegetación nativa y plantas domesticadas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given
    § Conclusión

    For years Afrodescendants, both free and enslaved, worked hard to obtain the gold with which to buy their freedom and that of their families.

    “Durante años los afrodescendientes, tanto libres como en condición de esclavitud, trabajaron arduamente para conseguir el oro con el cual comprar su libertad y la de sus familiares.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Paisajes racializados

    Their own commercial houses, as shown by a 1921 map of Tumaco, constituted obligatory references of the cities and contributed to the physical construction of these places.

    “Sus propias casas comerciales, como muestra un mapa de Tumaco de 1921, constituían referentes obligados de las ciudades y contribuyeron a la construcción física de estos lugares (Merizalde del Carmen, 1921).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Merizalde del Carmen, 1921

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Conclusión

    Based on the work of some anthropologists, an incipient social movement, and international pressures for the recognition of the rights of traditional peoples, the Constitution considers rural black communities of the Pacific coast in ethnic terms, and therefore as beneficiaries, like indigenous communities, of the figure of collective titling over the lands they occupy.

    “Con base en el trabajo de algunos antropólogos, un movimiento social incipiente y las presiones internacionales para el reconocimiento de los derechos de los pueblos tradicionales, nuestra Carta Magna considera las comunidades rurales negras de la costa pacífica en términos étnicos, y por tanto como beneficiarios, a semejanza de las comunidades indígenas, de la figura de titulación colectiva sobre”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    The Indian towns that the Spaniards forced to build in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, such as Lloró, were abandoned by indigenous people and occupied by black people.

    “Ya no se trataba de los pueblos de indios que los españoles obligaron a construir a finales del siglo XVII y principios del XVIII, como Lloró, puesto que estos fueron abandonados por los indígenas y ocupados por gente negra.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    Quibdó and Tumaco housed the largest concentrations of people the region had had until then.

    “Quibdó y Tumaco albergaron las mayores concentraciones de gente que la región había tenido hasta el momento.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    To the untrained eye, the distinction between native vegetation and domesticated plants was not obvious, and planted lands could sometimes be confused with the forest.

    “Sin embargo, para el ojo no entrenado esa distinción no era tan obvia y las tierras sembradas podían confundirse a veces con el bosque (ver foto abajo).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    The urban landscape clearly showed the power of this elite to a large number of Afrodescendants, some of whom found paths of ascent within the limited opportunities offered by the cities.

    “El paisaje urbano mostraba claramente el poder de esta élite a un gran número de afrodescendientes, algunos de los cuales encontraron caminos de ascenso dentro de las limitadas oportunidades que ofrecían las ciudades.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingcitation
    § Paisajes racializados

    Schools and missionary work were the main ways in which white elites tried to improve the supposed miserable condition of black people - and indigenous people - to allow progress to the region.

    “Efectivamente, las escuelas y el trabajo misionero fueron las principales formas en que las élites blancas trataron de mejorar la supuesta condición miserable de la gente negra -y de los indígenas-para así permitir el progreso a la región.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    Houses, increasingly numerous, clearly indicated that these were inhabited spaces.

    “Casas, cada día más numerosas, indicaban claramente que se trataba de espacios habitados.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § La libertad en una economía extractiva

    Tras la abolición, la economía extractiva del Pacífico persistió y se expandió: la región pasó de exportar solo oro a vender también platino, caucho negro y semillas de tagua.

    “La región pasó de exportar únicamente oro, a vender también platino y productos de la selva -principalmente caucho negro (Castilla elástica) y semillas de tagua o marfil vegetal (Phytelepas spp.), utilizadas para la fabricación de botones.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Conclusión

    Those who wrote at the time emphasized the supposed natural indolence of black people and ignored their long struggle for freedom.

    “Quienes escribieron en la época hicieron hincapié en la supuesta indolencia natural de la gente negra e ignoraron su larga lucha por la libertad.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    At that time the first cities also began to form.

    “En esa época comenzaron también a formarse las primeras ciudades.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    While the majority dedicated themselves to manual labor, a few joined the local bureaucracy or even became non-export merchants.

    “Mientras que la mayoría se dedicaba al trabajo manual, unos pocos se unieron a la burocracia local o incluso se convirtieron en comerciantes no exportadores.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    His arson attempt was prevented in time.

    “Su intento de incendio se evitó a tiempo.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Conclusión

    In the Pacific, descendants of slaves settled beyond the mining zones and thus contributed to incorporating into the national territory vast zones located in its physical margins.

    “En el Pacífico, los descendientes de esclavos se establecieron más allá de las zonas mineras y así contribuyeron a incorporar al territorio nacional vastas zonas ubicadas en sus márgenes físicos.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    Indigenous populations, present especially in Chocó, tended to move in the opposite direction, toward the upper parts of the few non-mining basins.

    “Las poblaciones indígenas, presentes sobre todo en el Chocó, tendieron a moverse en dirección opuesta, hacia las partes altas de las pocas cuencas no mineras.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    Thus began to alter the rigid racial division of labor that characterized the extractive economy, in which black peasants collected natural resources in the jungle and exchanged them for basic products with white merchants, who identified with an urban lifestyle.

    “De esta manera se comenzó a alterar la rígida división racial del trabajo que caracterizaba la economía extractiva, en la que los campesinos negros recogían los recursos naturales en la selva y los intercambiaban por productos básicos con los comerciantes blancos, que se identificaban con un estilo de vida urbano.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Paisajes racializados

    These men considered black people naturally suited to the hot and humid climate and to the jungle, which they perceived as chaotic and sickly.

    “Como dan fe los periódicos locales, los relatos de los viajeros y los informes de los funcionarios, estos hombres también consideraban a la gente negra naturalmente apta para el clima ardiente y húmedo y para la selva, que ellos percibían como caótica y enfermiza.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    However, in less than a week Valencia was executed after the president of Colombia supposedly approved the creation of a court-martial that declared him guilty.

    “Sin embargo, en menos de una semana Valencia fue ejecutado después de que el presidente de Colombia, supuestamente, aprobara la creación de un consejo de guerra que lo declaró culpable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Conclusión

    Instead of seeing them as savages who belong by nature to the indomitable jungles, as occurred in the past, both the Constitution and Law 70 of 1993 (which regulates collective titling) see black people as traditional peoples living in harmony with the environment.

    “En lugar de verlos como salvajes que pertenecen por su naturaleza a las selvas indómitas, como ocurrió en el pasado, tanto la Constitución como la Ley 70 de 1993 (que reglamenta la titulación colectiva) ven a la gente negra como pueblos tradicionales que viven en armonía en el medio ambiente.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingcitation
    § Paisajes racializados

    Black culture, for these men, was the antithesis of what they considered national culture should be.

    “La cultura negra, para estos hombres, era la antítesis de lo que ellos consideraban debía ser la cultura nacional (Leal, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leal, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Findingnone given
    § Paisajes racializados

    At the beginning of the 20th century, the Church made efforts to congregate the population by building churches.

    “Asimismo, a principios del siglo XX la Iglesia hizo esfuerzos por congregar a la población mediante la construcción de iglesias.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Conclusión

    Black peasants also acted as citizens, expanding the national community, for example, by demanding their right to protection against threats to their survival, as occurred during the struggles against tagua hoarders.

    “Los campesinos negros además actuaron como ciudadanos, ampliando la comunidad nacional, por ejemplo, al exigir su derecho a la protección ante las amenazas a su supervivencia, como ocurrió durante las luchas contra los acaparadores de tagua.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Paisajes racializados

    These ideas materialized in a general attitude and concrete acts, such as this execution, which exemplifies the obstacles black people faced in achieving recognition and a legitimate place in the nation.

    “Estas ideas se materializaron en una actitud general y actos concretos, como esta ejecución, que ejemplifica los obstáculos que enfrentó la gente negra para lograr reconocimiento y un lugar legítimo en la nación.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § La libertad en una economía extractiva

    In Belize, debt peonage severely limited the freedom of the black population.

    “Pero allí el endeudamiento sí limitó severamente la libertad de la población negra (Bolland, 1981).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bolland, 1981 source
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § La libertad en una economía extractiva

    In other South American rainforest zones, such as the Brazilian Amazon and Suriname, peasant societies also formed.

    “En otras zonas selváticas de América del Sur, como el Amazonas brasilero y Surinam, también se formaron sociedades campesinas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gomes, 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Price, 1983

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Conclusión

    Although some researchers have provided evidence about the prominent place of enslaved people themselves in dismantling slavery, this question still needs to find its rightful place in Colombian histories and school textbooks.

    “Aunque algunos investigadores han proporcionado pruebas sobre el lugar prominente de la misma gente esclavizada en el desmantelamiento de la esclavitud, todavía hace falta que esta cuestión encuentre el lugar que le corresponde en las historias de Colombia y los manuales escolares.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Introducción

    Los campesinos del Pacífico pudieron dominar el territorio y ser autónomos en gran medida debido a la marginalidad económica de la región.

    “Los campesinos del Pacífico pudieron dominar el territorio y ser autónomos en gran medida debido a la marginalidad económica de la región.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Conclusión

    The years following the end of slavery are fundamental to understanding the construction of this rural society and therefore provide a basis to explain how these recent developments were possible.

    “Los años que siguieron al fin de la esclavitud son fundamentales para entender la construcción de esta sociedad rural y, por tanto, proporcionan una base para explicar cómo fueron posibles estos desarrollos recientes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusión

    However, by living in the jungles, their rights were overshadowed and recognition of their achievements obstructed.

    “Sin embargo, por vivir en las selvas, sus derechos se vieron opacados y el reconocimiento a sus logros obstruido.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § La libertad en una economía extractiva

    In the Cauca, descendants of slaves initially enjoyed great autonomy, but in the 20th century, with the expansion of sugar production, they lost their access to land.

    “En el Cauca, los descendientes de esclavos disfrutaron inicialmente de gran autonomía, pero en el siglo XX, con la expansión de la producción de azúcar, perdieron su acceso a la tierra (Mina, 1975;Correa, 1987).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mina, 1975

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Correa, 1987

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusión

    Although Robert West accounted for this migration in his 1957 monograph, many have ignored this part of national history, probably because there were no highland peasants involved (as in Antioquian colonization) nor land conflicts arose, that is, because it escapes the patterns identified for a mainly Andean history.

    “Si bien Robert West dio cuenta de esta migración en su monografía de 1957, muchos han ignorado esta parte de la historia nacional, probablemente porque no hubo campesinos de zonas altas involucrados (como en la colonización antioqueña) ni surgieron conflictos por la tierra, es decir, porque escapa a los patrones identificados para una historia principalmente andina.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites West, 1957

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Introducción

    Las condiciones que permitieron llenar la libertad de un significado amplio también limitaron a largo plazo las opciones de vida de los afrodescendientes y contribuyeron a su posición social marginal.

    “las condiciones que permitieron llenar la libertad de un significado amplio también limitaron, en el largo plazo, las opciones de vida de los afrodescendientes y así contribuyeron a su posición social marginal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusión

    The 1991 Constitution gave a conceptual leap that changed this trend.

    “La Constitución de 1991 dio un salto conceptual que cambió esta tendencia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Paisajes racializados

    Others have written about the difficulties Afrodescendants faced in obtaining full citizenship.

    “Otros han escrito sobre las dificultades que enfrentaron los afrodescendientes para obtener una ciudadanía plena (Andrews, 2007;Gomes y Gomes da Cunha, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Andrews, 2007

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gomes y Gomes da Cunha, 2007

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § La libertad en una economía extractiva

    In the Colombian Caribbean, where slavery lost importance since the 18th century, a rural Afrodescendant but more mestizo population developed peasant ways of life threatened by the development of haciendas.

    “En el Caribe colombiano, donde la esclavitud perdió importancia desde el siglo XVIII, una población rural afrodescendiente, pero más mestiza, desarrolló formas de vida campesina amenazadas por el desarrollo de las haciendas (Fals Borda, 1986ay 1986b;Leal y Van Ausdal, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Fals Borda, 1986a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Fals Borda, 1986b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Leal y Van Ausdal, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusión

    Understanding that period is necessary for the historical comprehension of the peculiar phenomenon of black ethnicity in the context of Latin America, but above all to recognize the place that black peasants of the Pacific coast have in the history of Colombia and the African diaspora.

    “Entender ese período es necesario para la comprensión histórica del fenómeno peculiar de la etnicidad negra en el contexto de América Latina, pero sobre todo para reconocer el lugar que los campesinos negros de la costa pacífica tienen en la historia de Colombia y la diáspora africana.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusión

    The contributions of the black population to nation-building in its margins were not, and still have not been, fully recognized.

    “Las contribuciones de la población negra a la construcción de la nación en sus márgenes no fueron, y aún no han sido, plenamente reconocidas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Introducción

    La ideología racial, fortalecida por el determinismo ambiental, limitó el alcance de la libertad y contribuyó a que la gente negra entrara a la comunidad nacional con membresía de segunda categoría.

    “Esta ideología racial, fortalecida por el determinismo ambiental, limitó el alcance de la libertad, dado que contribuyó a que la gente negra entrara a formar parte de la comunidad nacional con una membresía de segunda categoría.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § La libertad en una economía extractiva

    Studies about these groups have focused on maroons who did not depend heavily on extraction for the market or who coexisted with haciendas, and generally have privileged either slavery or contemporary times over the history of the post-emancipation era.

    “Los estudios acerca de estos grupos se han centrado en cimarrones que no dependían fuertemente de la extracción para el mercado o que han coexistido con las haciendas, y en general han privilegiado bien sea la esclavitud o los tiempos contemporáneos sobre la historia de la época posterior a la emancipación (Gomes, 2005;Price, 1983).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gomes, 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Price, 1983

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

56 of 56
  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Los registros de manumisión conservados son suficientemente representativos para estimar que las compras de libertad fueron alrededor del 60% de las manumisiones.

    “Desafortunadamente no existe un registro completo de las cartas de manumisión, los documentos donde quedaba consignada la liberación de un esclavo, que indican si alguien había pagado por la libertad o si esta era otorgada por el amo”
  • The paper relies on this without support.

    La ausencia de palenques indica que los esclavizados no contaban con lugares para ocultarse por periodos largos.

    “no contaban con lugares para ocultarse por periodos de tiempo largos, como lo sugiere la ausencia de palenques.”
  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The local newspapers, travel accounts, and official reports used by the paper accurately represent the views of the white elite in the Pacific region.

    “Como dan fe los periódicos locales, los relatos de los viajeros y los informes de los funcionarios, estos hombres también consideraban a la gente negra naturalmente apta para el clima ardiente y húmedo y para la selva, que ellos percibían como caótica y enfermiza.”
3 of 3

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. ANDREWS, G. R. (1991). Blacks and Whites in São Paulo, Brazil, 1888-1988. The University of Wisconsin Press.
  2. LEAL, C. (2010). "Usos del concepto raza en Colombia", en Mosquera Rosero-Labbé, C., Laó Montes, A. y Rodríguez Garavito, C. (eds.) Debates sobre ciudadanía y políticas raciales en las Américas Negras. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
  3. LEAL, C. (2014). "Música, Raza y región. El currulao del Pacífico sur colombiano", en Purcell, F. y Arias, R. (eds.) Chile-Colombia: Diálogos sobre sus trayectorias históricas. Bogotá y Santiago: Ediciones Uniandes, Editorial Universidad Católica de Chile.
  4. MINAUDIER, J. P. (1988). "Une région minière de la colonie à l'indépendance: Barbacoas 1750-1830 (Economie, société, vie politique locale)", Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Etudes Andines 17(2) Lima.
  5. SHARP, W. (1976). Slavery on the Spanish Frontier. The Colombian Chocó 1680-1810. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

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Metadata

Authors
Leal León, C. M.
Venue
Revista CS
Published
2016-12-20
Issue
20
Pages
15-36
ISSN
  • 2011-0324 (ISSN-L)
  • 2665-4814
OpenAlex
W2561714164
Cited by
9
References
12
Citations by year
2025: 1 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 2
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Revista CS (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Revista CS en Ciencias Sociales (Universidad ICESI) (publishedVersion)
  • LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (publishedVersion)
  • Biblioteca Digital - Universidad Icesi (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Afro-Latin American Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › History and Politics in Latin America
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Colonialism, slavery, and trade
Keywords
descendants of slaves, abolition of slavery, Colombian Pacific coast, extractivism, gold mining, ivory trade, palm oil, rubber trade, land access, forest resources, free labor

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