Ethical Challenges for Learning Analytics
Open accessAbstract
This response to Neil Selwyn’s paper, ‘What’s the problem with learning analytics?’, relates his work to the ethical challenges associated with learning analytics and proposes six ethical challenges for the field.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Issues of fairness and equity in educational AI (AIEd) systems have received comparatively little attention.
“issues of fairness and equity in educational AI (AIEd) systems have received comparatively little attention (Blikstein, 2018; Ferguson, 2019; Holmes, Bialik, & Fadel, 2019; Holstein & Doroudi, 2019; Shum & Luckin, 2019).”
From Equity and Artificial Intelligence in Education: Will "AIEd" Amplify or Alleviate Inequities in Education? (2021) · cites this paper as Ferguson, 2019
Section 2.4, “Equality and Justice” (page not provided), says these challenges have not yet been fully explored in learning analytics. That supports the claim of limited attention, but the paper does not establish it for educational AI systems generally. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Penetrating the Fog: Analytics in Learning and Education.
Siemens, G., & Long, P. (2011) · Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) · Cited by 1,752 · see citing works
Learning analytics: drivers, developments and challenges
Ferguson, R. (2012) · International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1504/ijtel.2012.051816 · Cited by 1,357 · see citing works
Self-citationUsing learning analytics to scale the provision of personalised feedback
Pardo, A., Jovanovic, J., Dawson, S., Gašević, D., & Mirriahi, N. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12592 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
What’s the Problem with Learning Analytics?
Selwyn, N. (2019) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2019.63.3 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Understanding, evaluating, and supporting self-regulated learning using learning analytics
Roll, I., & Winne, P. H. (2015) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2015.21.2 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Algorithmic Accountability Reporting: On the Investigation of Black Boxes
Diakopoulos, N. A. (2014) · Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University) · doi:10.7916/d8zk5tw2 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Research Evidence on the Use of Learning Analytics: Implications for Education Policy
Ferguson, R., Andrew Brasher, A., Clow, D., Adam, C., Hillaire, G., Mittelmeier, J., Rienties, B., Ullmann, T., & Riina, V. (2016) · Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) · doi:10.2791/955210 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Self-citationThe History of Informed Consent.
Murray, P. M. (1990) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Repairing Disengagement With Non-Invasive Interventions
Arroyo, I., Ferguson, K., Johns, J., Dragon, T., Meheranian, H., Fisher, D., Barto, A. G., Mahadevan, S., & Woolf, B. P. (2007) · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Richardson, J. T. E. (2013) · Journal of Further and Higher Education · doi:10.1080/0309877x.2013.858680 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Learning analytics at the intersections of student trust, disclosure and benefit
Slade, S., Prinsloo, P., & Khalil, M. (2019) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3303772.3303796 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Towards Collaboration Translucence
Echeverría, V., Martínez‐Maldonado, R., & Shum, S. B. (2019) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300269 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Alhadad, S. S. J. (2018) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2018.52.5 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Designing Academic Writing Analytics for Civil Law Student Self-Assessment
Knight, S., Shum, S. B., Ryan, P., Sándor, Á., & Wang, X. (2016) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-016-0121-0 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Albuquerque, J., Bittencourt, I. I., Coelho, J. A. P. D. M., & da Silva, A. P. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.08.005 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The academic attainment of students with disabilities in UK higher education
Richardson, J. T. E. (2009) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075070802596996 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Student perspectives on the use of their data: between intrusion, surveillance and care
Slade, S., & Prinsloo, P. (2015) · Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Peeking into the black box: visualising learning activities
García, R. M. C., Pardo, A., Kloos, C. D., Niemann, K., Scheffel, M., & Wolpers, M. (2012) · International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning · doi:10.1504/ijtel.2012.048313 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Learning analytics - are we at risk of missing the point?
Liu, D. Y.-T., Rogers, T., & Pardo, A. (2015) · Moodle Research · Cited by 13 · see citing works
International PISA tests show how evidence-based policy can go wrong
Saltelli, A. (2017) · doi:10.64628/aal.dw3rhkk7a · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Playing with student data:The Learning Analytics Report Card (LARC)
Knox, J. (2017) · Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Evrard, A. E., & Teplovs, C. (2017). Community building around a shared history: Rebooting academic reporting tools at the University of Michigan. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK '17), 13-17 March 2017, Vancouver, BC, Canada (practitioner track).
- Ferguson, R., Hoel, T., Scheffel, M., & Drachsler, H. (2016). Ethics and privacy in learning analytics. Journal of Learning Analytics, 3(1), 5-15.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The impact of artificial intelligence on learner–instructor interaction in online learning
Seo, K., Tang, J., Roll, I., Fels, S., & Yoon, D. (2021) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-021-00292-9 · Cited by 788 · see citing works
Comparison of learning analytics and educational data mining: A topic modeling approach
Lemay, D. J., Baek, C., & Doleck, T. (2021) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100016 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Cerratto Pargman, T., & McGrath, C. (2021) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2021.1 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
What is ‘critical’ in critical studies of edtech? Three responses
Macgilchrist, F. (2021) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2021.1958843 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Raffaghelli, J. E., Manca, S., Stewart, B. E., Prinsloo, P., & Sangrà, A. (2020) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-020-00235-w · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Learning analytics in support of inclusiveness and disabled students: a systematic review
Khalil, M., Slade, S., & Prinsloo, P. (2023) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-023-09363-4 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Implementing next generation privacy and ethics research in education technology
Marshall, R., Pardo, A., Smith, D., & Watson, T. (2022) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13224 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
They shall be fair, transparent, and robust: auditing learning analytics systems
Simbeck, K. (2023) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-023-00292-7 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Untangling connections between challenges in the adoption of learning analytics in higher education
Alzahrani, A. S., Tsai, Y., Iqbal, S., Moreno-Marcos, P. M., Scheffel, M., Drachsler, H., Kloos, C. D., Aljohani, N. R., & Gašević, D. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-11323-x · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Moving Forward with Learning Analytics: Expert Views
Ferguson, R., Clow, D., Griffiths, D., & Andrew Brasher, A. (2019) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2019.63.8 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationTeaching Responsible Data Science: Charting New Pedagogical Territory
Lewis, A., & Stoyanovich, J. (2021) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-021-00241-7 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Holstein, K., & Doroudi, S. (2021) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2104.12920 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“, 2019; Shum, 2018), issues of fairness and equity in educational AI (AIEd) systems have received comparatively little attention (Blikstein, 2018; Ferguson, 2019; Holmes, Bialik, & Fadel, 2019; Holstein & Doroudi, 2019; Shum & Luckin, 2019).”
BackgroundThe life and times of university teachers in the era of digitalization: A tragedy
Teräs, H., Teräs, M., & Suoranta, J. (2022) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2022.2048393 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
An Introduction to Fairness, Absence of Bias, and Equity in Learning Analytics
Uttamchandani, S. L., & Quick, J. (2022) · Solar eBooks · doi:10.18608/hla22.020 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
9. Artificial intelligence for good?
Pechenkina, E. (2023) · Open Book Publishers · doi:10.11647/obp.0363.09 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Past, present, and future directions of learning analytics research for students with disabilities
Baek, C., & Aguilar, S. J. (2022) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2022.2067796 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Heiser, R., Dello Stritto, M. E., Brown, A., & Croft, B. (2023) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2023.7775 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Critical Data Studies, Abstraction & Learning Analytics
Shum, S. B. (2019) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2019.63.2 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Privacy-Driven Learning Analytics
Joksimovíc, S., Marshall, R., Rakotoarivelo, T., Ladjal, D., Zhan, C., & Pardo, A. (2021) · Smart innovation, systems and technologies · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86316-6_1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Equity-Forward Learning Analytics: Designing a Dashboard to Support Marginalized Student Success
Sloan-Lynch, J., & Morse, R. (2024) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3636555.3636844 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Jones, K. M. L., VanScoy, A., Bright, K. M., & Harding, A. (2021) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2021.185 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Liu, H., Fang, X., Cui, Q., & Chiu, T. K. F. (2026) · Review of Education · doi:10.1002/rev3.70141 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Eliciting students' preferences for the use of their data for learning analytics
Korir, M., Slade, S., Holmes, W., & Rienties, B. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003177098-13 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Student perspectives on their digital footprint in virtual learning environments
Rakow, K. E., Upsher, R. J., Foster, J., Byrom, N., & Dommett, E. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1208671 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Velander, J., Otero, N., Pargman, T. C., & Milrad, M. (2021) · Advances in Analytics for Learning and Teaching · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-81222-5_15 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Macgilchrist, F., & Jarke, J. (2025) · Discourse Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education · doi:10.1080/01596306.2025.2467365 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Supporting Student Agency with a Student-Facing Learning Analytics Dashboard
Kaveri, A., Silvola, A., & Muukkonen, H. (2023) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2023.7729 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
A measurement of faculty views on the meaning and value of student privacy
Jones, K. M. L., VanScoy, A., Bright, K. M., Harding, A., & Vedak, S. (2022) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-022-09320-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Simple Technology is an Improved Solution for a Post-Pandemic Informative System: A Reference Model
Housni, M., Talbi, M., & Namir, A. (2021) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v16i16.23211 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ethics in AI-based online assessment in higher education
Heil, J., & Ifenthaler, D. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-18851-0.00008-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Developing a Code of Practice for Using Data in Wellbeing Support
Cormack, A. N., & Reeve, D. (2022) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2022.7533 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cisel, M. (2023) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v24i4.7265 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
van Leeuwen, A., Goudriaan, M., & Aksu, Ü. (2024) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100304 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Do Predictive Analytics Dream of Risk-Free Education? The Politics of Risk Mitigation
Zakharova, I., & Jarke, J. (2023) · Postdigital Science and Education · doi:10.1007/s42438-023-00411-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Staff perspectives on key dimensions of institutional learning analytics implementation
Kaveri, A., Korpi, J., Silvola, A., & Muukkonen, H. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13790-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Payne, A. L., Compton, M., & Kennedy, S. (2023) · Postdigital science and education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-31875-7_7 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Viberg, O., & Grönlund, Å. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2105.06680 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Optimizing Education with Data Analytics: A Feature Comparison of LMS and SISPreprint
Rodríguez, J. A. L., Díaz–Díaz, N., & González, C. D. B. (2024) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202405.0459.v1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Heiser, R. E., Underhill, G. R., & Stritto, M. E. D. (2026) · American Journal of Qualitative Research · doi:10.29333/ajqr/17463 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Student Participation in Computing Studies to Understand Engagement and Grade Outcome
Wells, J., Spence, A., & McKenzie, S. (2021) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/4817 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Leveraging Disruptive Technologies and Systems Thinking Approach at Higher Education Institutions
Mafu, M. (2023) · The Sustainable University of the Future · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20186-8_2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Você decide quem POD: empoderando a/o estudante de computação quanto à propriedade de seus dados
Silva, O. E. B. M., Souza, T. F. B., Duda, J. M. S., Barros, B. S. R., & da Nóbrega, G. M. (2024) · doi:10.5753/educomp.2024.237559 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Theory and Learning Analytics, a Historical Perspective
Lodge, J. M., Knight, S., & Kitto, K. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-60571-0_1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ethics in Predictive Learning Analytics
Joseph‐Richard, P., & Uhomoibhi, J. O. (2021) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7103-3.ch004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Misiejuk, K., López‐Pernas, S., Kaliisa, R., & Saqr, M. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5145012 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Mind the Algorithm: Charting a Responsible Course for AI in Higher Education
Al–Chaer, E. D. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-99068-7_3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Data, Society and the University: Facets of a Complex Problem
Raffaghelli, J. E., & Sangrà, A. (2023) · Higher education dynamics · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24193-2_2 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
From Data to Outcomes: Experimental Learning Analytics Insights
Tepgeç, M., & Ifenthaler, D. (2024) · Cognition and exploratory learning in the digital age · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-54207-7_2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Enhancing higher education with Learning Analytics in the digital age
Clark, J.-A., & Tuffley, D. (2023) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.14742/apubs.2023.507 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Key Determinants of Learning Analytics Adoption in Moroccan Universities
Zine, A., & Kaaouachi, A. (2024) · Journal of Ecohumanism · doi:10.62754/joe.v3i5.3634 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cormack, A. N. (2020) · Journal of Law Technology and Trust · doi:10.19164/jltt.v1i1.1005
Raviolo, P. (2020) · EXCELLENCE AND INNOVATION IN LEARNING AND TEACHING · doi:10.3280/exioa2-2020oa10810
A Comprehensive Guide for Academic and Emotional Support in Counseling Programs
McCullough, D. (2024) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-3342-6.ch009
Recommender System for Smart University Registration System
Daajneh, M. A., & Itmazi, J. A. (2025) · Ahliya journal of business technology and MEAN economies. · doi:10.59994/ajbtme.2025.1.1
Martín-Monje, E. (2025) · The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20780
Zhang, X. (2025) · International Conference on Educational Technology Management (ICETM) · doi:10.1109/icetm67477.2025.11413357
Algorithmic Bias and Data Privacy in Education
Sharma, K., & Nigam, N. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-2600-1840-8.ch002
DEMİR, İ. (2026) · Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education · doi:10.30703/cije.1758405
Badr, S., & Charles, T. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-7467-3.ch006
Ahsan, M., Coura, L., Tahireen, U., Javed, F., Gonçalves, M., Guidoni, D. L., & Delabrida, S. E. (2026) · Journal on Interactive Systems · doi:10.5753/jis.2026.6616
Niu, J. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7324976
Niu, J. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7324973
- Authors
- Ferguson, R.
- Affiliations
- The Open University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Ferguson, Rebecca
- ORCID
- Ferguson, Rebecca
- Venue
- Journal of Learning Analytics
- Published
- 2019-12-13
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 3
- ISSN
- 1929-7750 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2995279764
- Cited by
- 62
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 7.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Journal of Learning Analytics (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
- Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal (University of Technology Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Online Learning and Analytics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Digital Education and Society
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Keywords
- learning analytics, ethics, ethical considerations, data privacy, school surveillance, student data
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review