Risk and Protective Factors for Intimate Partner Violence Against Women: Systematic Review and Meta-analyses of Prospective–Longitudinal Studies
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Background. The estimated lifetime prevalence of physical or sexual intimate partner violence (IPV) is 30% among women worldwide. Understanding risk and protective factors is essential for designing effective prevention strategies. Objectives. To quantify the associations between prospective–longitudinal risk and protective factors and IPV and identify evidence gaps. Search methods. We conducted systematic searches in 16 databases including MEDLINE and PsycINFO from inception to June 2016. The study protocol is registered with PROSPERO (CRD42016039213). Selection criteria. We included published and unpublished studies available in English that prospectively analyzed any risk or protective factor(s) for self-reported IPV victimization among women and controlled for at least 1 other variable. Data collection and analysis. Three reviewers were involved in study screening. One reviewer extracted estimates of association and study characteristics from each study and 2 reviewers independently checked a random subset of extractions. We assessed study quality with the Cambridge Quality Checklists. When studies investigated the same risk or protective factor using similar measures, we computed pooled odds ratios (ORs) by using random-effects meta-analyses. We summarized heterogeneity with I 2 and τ 2 . We synthesized all estimates of association, including those not meta-analyzed, by using harvest plots to illustrate evidence gaps and trends toward negative or positive associations. Main results. Of 18 608 studies identified, 60 were included and 35 meta-analyzed. Most studies were based in the United States. The strongest evidence for modifiable risk factors for IPV against women were unplanned pregnancy (OR = 1.66; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.20, 1.31) and having parents with less than a high-school education (OR = 1.55; 95% CI = 1.10, 2.17). Being older (OR = 0.96; 95% CI = 0.93, 0.98) or married (OR = 0.93; 95% CI = 0.87, 0.99) were protective. Conclusions. To our knowledge, this is the first systematic, meta-analytic review of all risk and protective factors for IPV against women without location, time, or publication restrictions. Unplanned pregnancy and having parents with less than a high-school education, which may indicate lower socioeconomic status, were shown to be risk factors, and being older or married were protective. However, no prospective–longitudinal study investigated the associations between IPV against women and any community or structural factor outside the United States, and more studies investigated risk factors related to women as opposed to their partners. Public health implications. This review highlights that prospective evidence for perpetrator- and context-related risk and protective factors for women’s experiences of IPV outside of the United States is lacking and urgently needed to inform global policy recommendations. The current evidence base of prospective studies suggests that, at least in the United States, education and sexual health interventions may be effective targets for preventing IPV against women, with young, unmarried women at greatest risk.
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Social norms and social processes are important in enforcing IPV.
“highlights the importance of social norms and social processes in enforcing IPV (cf. Capaldi et al., 2012; Yakubovich et al., 2018).”
From Theoretical Analysis of the Cycle of Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Yakubovich et al., 2018
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- Authors
- Yakubovich, A. R., Stöckl, H., Murray, J., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Steinert, J. I., Glavin, C. E. Y., & Humphreys, D. K.
- Affiliations
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas (BR)
- Alexa R. Yakubovich, Janina I. Steinert, and Calla E. Y. Glavin are with the Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. Heidi Stöckl is with the Department of Global Health and Development, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK. Joseph Murray is with the Center for Epidemiological Research, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil. G. J. Melendez-Torres is with the Development and Evaluation of Complex Interventions for Public Health...
- Venue
- American Journal of Public Health
- Publisher
- American Public Health Association
- Published
- 2018-07
- Volume
- 108
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- e1-e11
- ISSN
- 0090-0036 (ISSN-L)
- 1541-0048
- PMC
- PMC5993370
- OpenAlex
- W2804233370
- Cited by
- 349
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 54 · 2021: 45 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 13
- FWCI
- 3.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Public Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Cancer Research UK
- British Heart Foundation (MR/KO232331/1)
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (DFS152265)
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/P003176/1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Demography › Elder Abuse and Neglect
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Keywords
- intimate partner violence, violence against women, risk factors, protective factors, unintended pregnancy, parental education, socioeconomic status, age, marital status, IPV prevention, evidence gaps
- MeSH terms
- Intimate Partner Violence, Age Factors, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Pregnancy, Risk Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Crime Victims, Substance-Related Disorders, Pregnancy, Unplanned, Protective Factors
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