Assessing the Yield and Load of Contaminants with Stream Order: Would Policy Requiring Livestock to Be Fenced Out of High‐Order Streams Decrease Catchment Contaminant Loads?
Open accessAbstract
Catchment contaminant loads vary with stream order as catchment characteristics influence inputs and in‐stream processing. However, the relative influence and policy significance of these characteristics across a number of contaminants and at a national scale is unclear. We modeled the significance of catchment characteristics (e.g., climate, topography, geology, land cover), as captured by a national‐scale River Environment Classification (REC) system, and stream order in the estimation of contaminant yields. We used this model to test if potential regulation in New Zealand requiring livestock to be fenced off from large (high)‐order streams would substantially decrease catchment contaminant loads. Concentration and flow data for 1998 to 2009 were used to calculate catchment load and yields of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) species, suspended sediment, and Escherichia coli at 728 water quality monitoring sites. On average, the yields of all contaminants increased with increasing stream order in catchments dominated by agriculture (generally lowland and pastoral REC land cover classes). Loads from low‐order small streams (<1 m wide, 30 cm deep, and in flat catchments dominated by pasture) exempt from potential fencing regulations accounted for an average of 77% of the national load (varying from 73% for total N to 84% for dissolved reactive P). This means that to substantially reduce contaminant losses, other mitigations should be investigated in small streams, particularly where fencing of larger streams has low efficacy. Core Ideas: Contaminant yields increased with increasing stream order in catchments dominated by agriculture. Fencing off high‐order streams from stock misses 77% of national contaminant load from small‐order streams. Hence, to reduce contaminant losses to small streams, other mitigations are needed.
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In contemporary legislation, ditches may be mostly ignored, e.g., in the USA Clean Water Act, and in New Zealand regulations where livestock do not have to be fenced out of agricultural ditches and streams <1 m wide and <30 cm deep.
“Contrastingly, in contemporary legislation, ditches may be mostly ignored, e.g., in the USA Clean Water Act 88 , and in New Zealand regulations where livestock do not have to be fenced out of agricultural ditches and streams <1 m wide and <30 cm deep 89 .”
From Lines in the landscape (2025) · cites this paper as [89]
Ditches often disproportionately contribute to catchment nutrient, sediment and pathogen loads.
“Indeed, because ditches often disproportionately contribute to catchment nutrient, sediment and pathogen loads 89 they could be prime candidates for pollutant removal and mitigation.”
From Lines in the landscape (2025) · cites this paper as [89]
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- Authors
- McDowell, R. W., Cox, N., & Snelder, T. H.
- Affiliations
- Lincoln University (NZ)
- AgResearch (NZ)
- LWP Limited P.O. Box 70 Lyttelton New Zealand
- Corresponding author
- McDowell, R. W.
- Venue
- Journal of Environmental Quality
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2017-09
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1038-1047
- ISSN
- 0047-2425 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-2537
- OpenAlex
- W2759786087
- Cited by
- 31
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 2.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Environmental Quality (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Lincoln University Research Archive (Lincoln University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- AgResearch
- Funders
- Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (C10X1507)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Soil and Water Nutrient Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Quality and Pollution Assessment
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil erosion and sediment transport
- Keywords
- stream order, livestock fencing, nitrogen, phosphorus, suspended sediment, Escherichia coli, agricultural catchments, small streams, water quality policy, New Zealand
- MeSH terms
- Agriculture, Animals, Animal Husbandry, Environmental Monitoring, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Water Pollution, Rivers, Livestock
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