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Cited by 19Body Image and Dysmorphia StudiesPsychosomatic Disorders and Their TreatmentsAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

Body Dysmorphic Disorder Symptoms: Prevalence and Risk Factors in an Arab Middle Eastern Population

Open access
Alghamdi, Waleed Ahmed, Subki, Ahmed Hussein, Khatib, Hazim Abdulkarim, Butt, Nadeem Shafique, Alghamdi, Rahaf Ali, Alsallum, Mohammed Saad, Alharbi, Ahmed Abdu, Almatrafi, Mohammad Nasser +3 more·2022·International Journal of General Medicine
DOI 10.2147/ijgm.s329942PMC PMC8923679
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Abstract

Background: The present study examined the prevalence of and risk factors for symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) in the general population of Jeddah, a large port city in Saudi Arabia. Methods: This cross-sectional study surveyed a convenience sample of 520 adults. We used a validated self-screening measure to assess BDD, the body dysmorphic disorder questionnaire (BDDQ). Results: The prevalence of significant BDD symptoms among the general Saudi population was 8.8% (ie, those scoring above the cut off for BDD on the BDDQ). Over half (52%) of all respondents reported concerns about the attractiveness of their body parts, and of those expressing such concerns, 66% were preoccupied with these thoughts. Only 3% of all respondents opted for cosmetic surgery because of these concerns, and most of those individuals (69%) had only one surgery. Nearly 9% of all respondents reported that these concerns affected their relationships with family and friends. Almost 15% of all participants spent an hour or more each day thinking about these concerns. Patients who reported a history of depression were 3.8 times more likely to have BDD. Other variables included in the model predicting high BDD scores (eg, age, job status, and marital status) did not achieve statistical significance. Conclusion: Significant symptoms of BDD (based on the BDDQ) are not uncommon among the general population of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Risk factors for this condition were female gender, younger age, being unmarried, and in bivariate and multivariate analyses, history of depression and female gender. These findings underscore the need for increased awareness by clinicians of this disorder, particularly when treating patients with depressive disorder, particularly among women.

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  • The higher BDD prevalence in this study and similar non-Western settings may reflect underdiagnoses in Western contexts due to greater mental health literacy or differences in help-seeking behavior.

    “The higher prevalence in our study and similar non-Western settings may also reflect underdiagnoses in Western contexts due to greater mental health literacy or differences in help-seeking behavior12,14.”

    From Association between beauty standards shaped by social media and body dysmorphia among Egyptian medical students (2025) · cites this paper as [12]

    The Discussion reports higher BDD symptom screening rates in Jeddah than in US and German studies, while cautioning that different methods prevent an accurate comparison. The Introduction says BDD prevalence may be underestimated when people do not seek medical attention, but it does not attribute the lower Western rates to underdiagnosis, mental health literacy, or cross-cultural differences in help-seeking behavior. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

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  • The difference in BDD rates could stem from cultural variations in beauty standards, with East Asian cultures emphasizing facial features or skin tone and Middle Eastern and African contexts prioritizing body shape or hair.

    “This could stem from cultural variations in beauty standards—for instance, East Asian cultures often emphasize facial features or skin tone13, while Middle Eastern and African contexts may prioritize body shape or hair11,12.”

    From Association between beauty standards shaped by social media and body dysmorphia among Egyptian medical students (2025) · cites this paper as [12]

    The Discussion (page unavailable) suggests that cultural factors may help explain differences in BDD rates and describes differences in ideal body weight between Arabian and Western societies. It does not address African contexts or say that Middle Eastern or African cultures prioritize hair. The East Asian comparison is attached to a different citation in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Western epidemiologic data suggest general population BDD rates of 1.7-2.9%.

    “while Western epidemiologic data suggest general population rates of 1.7–2.9%12,14.”

    From Association between beauty standards shaped by social media and body dysmorphia among Egyptian medical students (2025) · cites this paper as [12]

    The Discussion reports general-population BDD rates of 1.7% in Germany and 2.4% in the United States, supporting the Western comparison. It does not report the claimed 2.9% upper endpoint. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Authors
Alghamdi, W. A., Subki, A. H., Khatib, H. A., Butt, N. S., Alghamdi, R. A., Alsallum, M. S., Alharbi, A. A., Almatrafi, M. N., Alobisi, A. A., Al-Zaben, F., & Koenig, H. G.
Affiliations
  • King Abdulaziz University (SA)
  • King Faisal Specialist Hospital & Research Centre (SA)
  • King Abdulaziz Hospital (SA)
  • King Abdulaziz Medical City (SA)
Corresponding author
Alghamdi, Waleed Ahmed
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of General Medicine
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2022-03
Volume
Volume 15
Pages
2905-2912
ISSN
1178-7074 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.2147/ijgm.s329942
PMC
PMC8923679
OpenAlex
W4220918755
Cited by
19
References
25
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7
FWCI
3.43
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of General Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Dove Medical Press (Taylor and Francis Group) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords
body dysmorphic disorder, prevalence, risk factors, depression, body image concern, cosmetic surgery, Saudi adults, Jeddah, female gender, marital status, Arabs

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