The Role of Iron in Neurodegeneration: Prospects for Pharmacotherapy of Parkinson??s Disease
Abstract
Although the aetiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) and related neurodegenerative disorders is still unknown, recent evidence from human and experimental animal models suggests that a misregulation of iron metabolism, iron-induced oxidative stress and free radical formation are major pathogenic factors. These factors trigger a cascade of deleterious events leading to neuronal death and the ensuing biochemical disturbances of clinical relevance. A review of the available data in PD provides the following evidence in support of this hypothesis: (i) an increase of iron in the brain, which in PD selectively involves neuromelanin in substantia nigra (SN) neurons; (ii) decreased availability of glutathione (GSH) and other antioxidant substances; (iii) increase of lipid peroxidation products and reactive oxygen (O2)species (ROS); and (iv) impaired mitochondrial electron transport mechanisms. Most of these changes appear to be closely related to interactions between iron and neuromelanin, which result in accumulation of iron and a continuous production of cytotoxic species leading to neuronal death. Some of these findings have been reproduced in animal models using 6-hydroxydopamine, N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), iron loading and beta-carbolines, although none of them is an accurate model for PD in humans. Although it is not clear whether iron accumulation and oxidative stress are the initial events causing cell death or consequences of the disease process, ther…
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Toxic levels of glutamate induce morphological changes in neurons, manifesting in deformed dendrites and expanded rounded neurons.
“These toxic levels of glutamate induce morphological changes in neurons, manifesting in deformed dendrites and expanded rounded neurons (Reynolds’ and Hastings, 1995; Jellinger, 1999; Adamchik et al., 2000; Robert et al., 2002; Youdim et al., 2002; García et al., 2005), showing degenerative cell (Kang et al., 2020; Erkartal et al., 2025) and neuronal death (Weidinger et al., 2023).”
From Toxic Concentrations of Glutamate Induce Ferroptosis without Affecting Mitochondrial Respiration in Rodent Brain Slice Cultures (2026) · cites this paper as Jellinger, 1999
Cites
DEXTER, D. T., CARAYON, A., JAVOY-AGID, F., AGID, Y., WELLS, F. R., DANIEL, S. E., LEES, A. J., JENNER, P., & MARSDEN, C. D. (1991) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/114.4.1953 · Cited by 1,043 · see citing works
Immunohistochemical detection of 4-hydroxynonenal protein adducts in Parkinson disease.
Yoritaka, A., Hattori, N., Uchida, K., Tanaka, M., Stadtman, E. R., & Mizuno, Y. (1996) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.93.7.2696 · Cited by 981 · see citing works
Alam, Z. I., Jenner, A., Daniel, S. E., Lees, A. J., Cairns, N., Marsden, C. D., Jenner, P., & Halliwell, B. (1997) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.1997.69031196.x · Cited by 845 · see citing works
Brain iron and ferritin in Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases
Jellinger, K., Paulus, W., Grundke-Iqbal, I., Riederer, P., & Youdim, M. B. H. (1990) · Journal of Neural Transmission - Parkinson's Disease and Dementia Section · doi:10.1007/bf02252926 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Self-citationConnor, J. R., Snyder, B. S., Arosio, P., Loeffler, D. A., & LeWitt, P. (1995) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.1995.65020717.x · Cited by 317 · cited 1× · see citing works
“[21,96,97,99,122,123] Ferritin is co-localised with”
Excitotoxicity and nitric oxide in parkinson's disease pathogenesis
Beal, M. F. (1998) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.410440716 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Oestreicher, E., Sengstock, G. J., Riederer, P., Olanow, C. W., Dunn, A. J., & Arendash, G. W. (1994) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(94)90833-8 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The role of iron in brain ageing and neurodegenerative disorders
Ward, R. J., Zucca, F. A., Duyn, J. H., Crichton, R. R., & Zecca, L. (2014) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(14)70117-6 · Cited by 1,819 · see citing works
Bush, A. (2000) · Current Opinion in Chemical Biology · doi:10.1016/s1367-5931(99)00073-3 · Cited by 731 · see citing works
Interactions of iron, dopamine and neuromelanin pathways in brain aging and Parkinson's disease
Zucca, F. A., Segura-Aguilar, J., Ferrari, E., Muñoz, P., Paris, I., Sulzer, D., Sarna, T., Casella, L., & Zecca, L. (2017) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.09.012 · Cited by 659 · see citing works
Genetic or Pharmacological Iron Chelation Prevents MPTP-Induced Neurotoxicity In Vivo
Kaur, D., Yantiri, F., Rajagopalan, S., Kumar, J., Mo, J. Q., Boonplueang, R., Viswanath, V., Jacobs, R., Yang, L., Beal, M. F., et al. (2003) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00126-0 · Cited by 620 · see citing works
Kell, D. B. (2009) · BMC Medical Genomics · doi:10.1186/1755-8794-2-2 · Cited by 554 · see citing works
Kell, D. B. (2010) · Archives of Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00204-010-0577-x · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Levites, Y., Youdim, M. B. H., Maor, G., & Mandel, S. (2002) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0006-2952(01)00813-9 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Shachar, D. B., Kahana, N., Kampel, V., Warshawsky, A., & Youdim, M. B. H. (2004) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2003.09.005 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Iron and neurodegenerative disorders
Thompson, K. J., Shoham, S., & Connor, J. R. (2001) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/s0361-9230(01)00510-x · Cited by 235 · see citing works
YOUDIM, M. B. H., STEPHENSON, G., & SHACHAR, D. B. (2004) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1306.025 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Clinical features and natural history of neuroferritinopathy caused by the FTL1 460InsA mutation
Chinnery, P. F., Crompton, D. E., Birchall, D., Jackson, M. J., Coulthard, A., Lombes, A., Quinn, N., Wills, A., Fletcher, N., Mottershead, J. P., et al. (2006) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awl319 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
D’Alessio, F., Hentze, M. W., & Muckenthaler, M. U. (2012) · Journal of Hepatology · doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2012.06.015 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Decreased transferrin receptor expression by Neuromelanin cells in restless legs syndrome
Connor, J. R., Wang, X. S., Patton, S. M., Menzies, S. L., Troncoso, J. C., Earley, C. J., & Allen, R. P. (2004) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000123251.60485.ac · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Gal, S., Zheng, H., Fridkin, M., & Youdim, M. B. H. (2005) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03341.x · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Youdim, M. B. H., Fridkin, M., & Zheng, H. (2004) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-004-0143-x · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Iron: A New Target for Pharmacological Intervention in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Whitnall, M., & Richardson, D. R. (2006) · Seminars in Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.spen.2006.08.008 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Neuroprotection by iron chelator against proteasome inhibitor-induced nigral degeneration
Zhang, X., Xie, W., Qu, S., Pan, T., Wang, X., & Le, W. (2005) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.05.150 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Metallobiology of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine neurotoxicity
Hare, D. J., Adlard, P. A., Doble, P. A., & Finkelstein, D. I. (2013) · Metallomics · doi:10.1039/c2mt20164j · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Iron accumulation in the striatum predicts aging-related decline in motor function in rhesus monkeys
Cass, W. A., Grondin, R., Andersen, A. H., Zhang, Z., Hardy, P. A., Hussey-Andersen, L. K., Rayens, W. S., Gerhardt, G. A., & Gash, D. M. (2007) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.12.010 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Gal, S., Fridkin, M., Amit, T., Zheng, H., & Youdim, M. B. H. (2006) · Parkinson’s Disease and Related Disorders · doi:10.1007/978-3-211-45295-0_68 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Zheng, H., Youdim, M. B. H., Weiner, L. M., & Fridkin, M. (2005) · Biochemical Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2005.09.003 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Vaglio-Garro, A., Theuermann, M., Sweis, K. E., Zavadskis, S., Kokas, M., Környei, Z., Karas, M., Tretter, L., Komlódi, T., Weidinger, A., et al. (2026) · eneuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0439-25.2026
- Authors
- Jellinger, K. A.
- Affiliations
- Ludwig Boltzmann für Klinische Neurobiologie (AT)
- Corresponding author
- Jellinger, Kurt A.
- ORCID
- Jellinger, Kurt A.
- Venue
- Drugs & Aging
- Published
- 1999
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 115-140
- ISSN
- 1170-229X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2072704848
- Cited by
- 218
- References
- 7
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 6 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 12.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Drugs & Aging (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurological diseases and metabolism
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Hematology › Iron Metabolism and Disorders
- Keywords
- Parkinson's disease, iron metabolism, iron overload, oxidative stress, free radicals, neuromelanin, substantia nigra, glutathione, lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial electron transport chain, neuronal cell death, Parkinson's disease model, neuroprotection, iron chelators, lazaroids, antioxidants, dopamine agonists, monoamine oxidase B inhibitors, catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Drug Interactions, Forecasting, Humans, Iron, Melanins, Models, Biological, Nervous System Diseases, Parkinson Disease, Oxidative Stress
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review