Spatial inequality in water access and water use in South Africa
Abstract
The importance of measuring inequalities in sustainable development is reflected in the requirement to disaggregate national data for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In this paper, piped water access, water use and water stress are mapped and reported at national, provincial, district, municipal, town and ward levels, and urban and rural areas. The results show that although 45% of the population has water access in their dwelling this ranges from 0.07% to 100% at ward level, with a high level of inequality (Gini index of 0.36). National per capita water use is 208 litres per person per day (l/c/d) but ranges from 8 l/c/d to 2,414 l/c/d at town level, with a Gini index of 0.27. The analysis shows that social factors, such as water access and income, and not natural factors, such as rainfall or runoff, have the greatest influence on per capita water use. The paper provides the first in-depth analysis of per capita water use at the local level across South Africa and suggests new water indicators that could support equitable allocation of water resources and SDG reporting.
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The reserves designated by the Natives Land Act were located in areas with moderate to high rainfall, scattered throughout South Africa's eastern half, receiving between 500 and 2,000 mm of annual precipitation.
“However, evidence suggests the reserves were located in areas with moderate to high rainfall. Fast and Kallis (2004) document that these reserves were scattered throughout South Africa's eastern half, a region receiving between 500 and 2,000 mm of annual precipitation. This is considered high rainfall for the South African climate (Cole et al. 2018: 38).”
From Exclusion and invented water scarcity: a historical perspective from colonialism to apartheid in South Africa (2024) · cites this paper as Cole et al. 2018: 38
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- Authors
- Cole, M. J., Bailey, R. M., Cullis, J. D. S., & New, M. G.
- Affiliations
- University of Cape Town (ZA)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Aurecon South Africa, Aurecon Centre, 1 Century City Drive, Waterford Precinct, Century City, Cape Town 7441, South Africa
- University of East Anglia (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Cole, Megan J.
- Venue
- Water Policy
- Publisher
- IWA Publishing
- Published
- 2017-12-20
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 37-52
- ISSN
- 1366-7017 (ISSN-L)
- 1996-9759
- OpenAlex
- W2776083579
- Cited by
- 88
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 3
- FWCI
- 3.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Water Policy (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Ocean Engineering › Water resources management and optimization
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resource Management and Quality
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Water Resources and Sustainability
- Keywords
- regional disparities, water access, per capita water consumption, water stress, piped water, Sustainable Development Goals, Gini coefficient, urban-rural disparities, water allocation, South Africa
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