Studying the Effects of Classic Hallucinogens in the treatment of alcoholism: Rationale, methodology, and current research with psilocybin
Abstract
Recent developments in the study of classic hallucinogens, combined with a re-appraisal of the older literature, have led to a renewal of interest in possible therapeutic applications for these drugs, notably their application in the treatment of addictions. This article will first provide a brief review of the research literature providing direct and indirect support for the possible therapeutic effects of classic hallucinogens such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in the treatment of addictions. Having provided a rationale for clinical investigation in this area, we discuss design issues in clinical trials using classic hallucinogens, some of which are unique to this class of drug. We then discuss the current status of this field of research and design considerations in future randomized trials.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the mid-20th century, psychedelics were found to reduce alcohol cravings and consumption.
“These substances were found to reduce alcohol cravings and consumption.”
From A Narrative Review of Current and Emerging Trends in the Treatment of Alcohol Use Disorder (2024) · cites this paper as [74]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Nichols, D. E. (2016) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478 · Cited by 1,762 · see citing works
“There were serious attempts to employ LSD in various kinds of therapy, with major emphasis on treatment of alcoholism and other addictions (Bogenschutz, 2013), as well as issues related to death and dying (e.g., see Grof et al., 1973; Kurland, 1985).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialStructure of a Hallucinogen-Activated Gq-Coupled 5-HT2A Serotonin Receptor
Kim, K., Che, T., Panova, O., DiBerto, J. F., Lyu, J., Krumm, B. E., Wacker, D., Robertson, M. J., Seven, A. B., Nichols, D. E., et al. (2020) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.024 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
“Psilocybin and LSD have emerged as potential therapeutics for a number of neuropsychiatric conditions including depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and cluster headaches (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016; Bogenschutz, 2013; Gasser et al., 2015; Sewell et al., 2006; Nutt et al., 2020).”
dos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A. S., Riba, J., Zuardi, A. W., & Hallak, J. E. C. (2016) · Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/2045125316638008 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study
Johansen, P.-Ø., & Krebs, T. (2015) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881114568039 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
“, 2014), depression and other mental health problems (Baumeister et al., 2014; Bogenschutz, 2013; Hendricks et al., 2014).”
BackgroundRecreational drug use and human aggressive behavior: A comprehensive review since 2003
Tomlinson, M. F., Brown, M. F. D., & Hoaken, P. N. S. (2016) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2016.02.004 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Nielson, E. M., May, D. G., Forcehimes, A. A., & Bogenschutz, M. P. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00132 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“With regard to the role of psilocybin-induced mysticomimetic experience in alcohol treatment, one possibility is that it results in increased motivation such that changes in drinking occur (Bogenschutz, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationBlough, B. E., Landavazo, A., Decker, A. M., Partilla, J. S., Baumann, M. H., & Rothman, R. B. (2014) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3557-7 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“2011), for smoking cessation (Johnson 2013), and for alcohol abuse (Bogenschutz 2013).”
BackgroundMeinhardt, M. W., Pfarr, S., Fouquet, G., Rohleder, C., Meinhardt, M. L., Barroso-Flores, J., Hoffmann, R., Jeanblanc, J., Paul, E., Wagner, K., et al. (2021) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abh2399 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Depression and substance use disorders: Clinical comorbidity and shared neurobiology
Calarco, C. A., & Lobo, M. K. (2020) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2020.09.004 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Psilocybin and LSD have no long-lasting effects in an animal model of alcohol relapse
Meinhardt, M. W., Güngör, C., Skorodumov, I., Mertens, L. J., & Spanagel, R. (2020) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-020-0694-z · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Palma, Á., Ventura, M., Galindo, L., Fonseca, F., Grifell, M., Quintana, P., Fornís, I., Gil, C., Farré, M., & Torrens, M. (2017) · Journal of Psychoactive Drugs · doi:10.1080/02791072.2017.1320732 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Metabolism of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): an update
Libânio Osório Marta, R. F. (2019) · Drug Metabolism Reviews · doi:10.1080/03602532.2019.1638931 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Classic psychedelics and alcohol use disorders: A systematic review of human and animal studies
Calleja‐Conde, J., Morales-Garcia, J. A., Echeverry‐Alzate, V., Bühler, K., Giné, E., & López‐Moreno, J. A. (2022) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.13229 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“For AUD, the most used was LSD throughout these two decades.(3) Several studies reported that classic psychedelics led to reductions in craving and alcohol consumption through an improvement in self-acceptance and interpersonal relationships.”
BackgroundMethodPsilocybin, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, Mescaline, and Drug-Induced Synesthesia
Brogaard, B. “., & Gatzia, D. E. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800212-4.00083-2 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The fibrinolytic system: A new target for treatment of depression with psychedelics
Idell, R. D., Florova, G., Komissarov, A. A., Shetty, S., Girard, R., & Idell, S. (2017) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2017.01.013 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Small pilot studies in humans have shown efficacy of psilocybin in the treatment of anxiety in advanced stage cancer [86], as well as tobacco [87] and alcohol addiction [88].”
BackgroundCurrent Perspective on the Therapeutic Preset for Substance-Assisted Psychotherapy
Thal, S. B., Bright, S. J., Sharbanee, J. M., Wenge, T., & Skeffington, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.617224 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…low to medium doses of psychoactive substances are used to foster the gradual and progressive unfolding of various levels of the unconscious activating and accelerating the process of psychodynamic or psychoanalytic psychotherapy (Leuner, 1967; Grof, 2000; Bogenschutz, 2013; Majić et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPresence, Trust, and Empathy: Preferred Characteristics of Psychedelic Carers
Thal, S. B., Engel, L. B., & Bright, S. J. (2022) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/00221678221081380 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Davis, A. K., Xin, Y., Sepeda, N. D., & Averill, L. A. (2023) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990.2023.2220874 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Recent phase 3 results found that relative to manualized treatment and placebo, MDMA-assisted therapy was highly efficacious in individuals with severe PTSD, and treatment was safe and well-tolerated, even in those with comorbidities (25).”
BackgroundResultTreating drug dependence with the aid of ibogaine: A qualitative study
Schenberg, E. E., Comis, M. A. D. C., Alexandre, J. F. M., Chaves, B. R., Tófoli, L. F., & da Silveira, D. X. (2017) · Journal of Psychedelic Studies · doi:10.1556/2054.01.2016.002 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“…(LSD) and psilocybin that is increasingly recognized as having important therapeutic potentials in the treatment of substance use disorders (Bogenschutz, 2013; Johnson, Garcia-Romeu, Cosimano, & Grif fi ths, 2014; Krebs & Johansen, 2012; Sessa & Johnson, 2015; Tupper, Wood, Yensen, &…”
BackgroundSerra, Y. A., Barros-Santos, T., Anjos-Santos, A., Kisaki, N. D., Jovita-Farias, C., Leite, J. P., Santana, M. C. E., Coimbra, J. P. S. A., de Jesus, N. M. S., Sulima, A., et al. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06104-w · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Those findings further support a potential for ayahuasca and other 5-HT2A receptor agonists as adjunctive pharmacotherapies for the treatment of AUD.”
BackgroundInfluentialThal, S. B., Baker, P., Marinis, J., Wieberneit, M., Sharbanee, J. M., Bruno, R., Skeffington, P., & Bright, S. J. (2023) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2945 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Bernal, A. M. O., Raison, C. L., Lancelotta, R., & Davis, A. K. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1049643 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Kimmey, B. A., Ostroumov, A., & Dani, J. A. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1911446116 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Tófoli, L. F., & de Araújo, D. B. (2016) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.06.005 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
A Narrative Review of Current and Emerging Trends in the Treatment of Alcohol Use Disorder
Celik, M., Gold, M. S., & Fuehrlein, B. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14030294 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Scientists were exploring whether its ability to enhance self-awareness could be beneficial in therapy for individuals with a history of alcohol misuse [74].”
BackgroundThal, S. B., Wieberneit, M., Sharbanee, J. M., Skeffington, P., Baker, P., Bruno, R., Wenge, T., & Bright, S. J. (2022) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811221127954 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“A high proportion of the practitioners in the field still regard personal experiences with these substances as essential and advantageous (Bogenschutz, 2013; Bogenschutz and Forcehimes, 2017; Metzner, 1998; Möckel Graber, 2010), and some have even proclaimed it to be imperative in order to…”
BackgroundInfluentialElsilä, L. V., Harkki, J., Enberg, E., Martti, A., Linden, A.-M., & Korpi, E. R. (2022) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811221104641 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“The search for more efficient pharmacotherapies to reduce alcohol intake has led scientists to look into psychedelics (Bogenschutz, 2013).”
BackgroundHERE AND NOW: DISCOVERING THE SACRED WITH ENTHEOGENS
Richards, W. A. (2014) · Zygon® · doi:10.1111/zygo.12108 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Vorobyeva, N. S., & Kozlova, A. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2022.927984 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“By modulating glutamatergic neurotransmission, psilocybin can affect the brain’s reward system, increasing cognitive and emotional control, which are the basis for reducing addictive behaviours (Catlow et al., 2013; Michael, 2013; Dos Santos et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBenvenuti, F., Colombo, D., Soverchia, L., Cannella, N., Domi, E., & Ciccocioppo, R. (2023) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-023-06384-w · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“More important initial clinical findings suggest that psilocybin might be a valuable compound for the treatment of various form of addictions including alcoholism (Bogenschutz 2013; Bogenschutz et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialAzevedo, N., da Silva, M. O., & Madeira, L. (2023) · Philosophies · doi:10.3390/philosophies8050076 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Kimmey, B. A., Wittenberg, R. E., Croicu, A., Shadani, N., Ostroumov, A., & Dani, J. A. (2022) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.13147 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Neurobiology of the Effects of Psilocybin in Relation to Its Potential Therapeutic Targets
Tylš, F., Páleníček, T., & Horáček, J. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800212-4.00073-x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The potential utility of some legal highs in CNS disorders
Davidson, C., & Schifano, F. (2015) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.07.010 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The hallucinogens LSD and psilocybin have been tested for alcohol abuse and nicotine dependence (Krebs and Johansen, 2012; Bogenschutz, 2013) and there are NPS which, like these classic hallucinogens, are agonists at the 5-HT2A receptor, for example 5- APB and mCPP.”
Contreras, A., Khumnark, M., Hines, R. M., & Hines, D. J. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-81552-6 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the human heart
Neumann, J., Dhein, S., Kirchhefer, U., Hofmann, B., & Gergs, U. (2024) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2024.1334218 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Classic psychedelics: the special role of the visual system
Császár-Nagy, N., Kapócs, G., & Bókkon, I. (2019) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro-2018-0092 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…pilot clinical trials suggest that treatments by psychedelics can be promising for addiction, depression, anxiety, and other conditions (Ross, 2012; Bogenschutz, 2013; Johnson and Griffiths, 2017; Johnson et al., 2017; Kyzar et al., 2017; Nichols et al., 2017; Rucker et al., 2018; Bogenschutz and…”
BackgroundA new serotonin 2A receptor antagonist with potential benefits in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Sessa, L., Concilio, S., Fominaya, J. M., Eletto, D., Piotto, S., & Busquets, X. (2022) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2022.121315 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Thal, S. B., Engel, L. B., & Bright, S. J. (2022) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.1080/16066359.2022.2065268 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In psycholytic therapy, low to medium doses of psychedelics are used in combination with psychodynamic or psychoanalytic psychotherapy (Bogenschutz 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialHupli, A. (2022) · Drugs Education Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1080/09687637.2022.2063108 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…physical and social environment where they are taken: ‘The effects of hallucinogens vary markedly from individual to individual and from session to session, depending on the context, expectations, and environment of the session’ (Bogenschutz, 2013, p. 19; see also Langlitz, 2010; Hartogsohn, 2017).”
BackgroundThal, S. B., Wieberneit, M., Sharbanee, J. M., Skeffington, P., Bruno, R., Wenge, T., & Bright, S. J. (2023) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/00221678231168516 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
History of psychedelic drug science and molecular pharmacology
Nichols, D. E., & Nichols, C. D. (2025) · International review of neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2025.02.001 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Plantes psychotropes, médecines traditionnelles autochtones du Pérou et renaissance psychédélique
Berlowitz, I. (2022) · Drogues santé et société · doi:10.7202/1090700ar · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lasch, A., Schweikert, T., Dora, E., Kolb, T., Schurig, H. L., & Walther, A. (2023) · Fortschritte der Neurologie · Psychiatrie · doi:10.1055/a-2046-5202 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Needs Assessment of Older Hispanics in Omaha, Nebraska
DiMartino, D. R. (1979) · DigitalCommons@UNO · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ergometrine stimulates histamine H 2 receptors in the isolated human atriumPreprint
Jacob, H., Braekow, P., Hofmann, B., et al. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2832272/v1
Lasch, A., Schweikert, T., Dora, E., Kolb, T., Schurig, H. L., & Walther, A. (2025) · Nervenheilkunde · doi:10.1055/a-2517-1621
- Authors
- Bogenschutz, M.
- Affiliations
- University of New Mexico (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bogenschutz, Michael
- ORCID
- Bogenschutz, Michael
- Venue
- Current Drug Abuse Reviews
- Publisher
- Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
- Published
- 2013-06-01
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 17-29
- ISSN
- 1874-4737 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1996607457
- Cited by
- 47
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 3.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Current Drug Abuse Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Johns Hopkins University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide, alcoholism, addiction treatment, psychedelic therapy, clinical trial design, substance use disorders
- MeSH terms
- Alcoholism, Animals, Brain, Clinical Trials as Topic, Combined Modality Therapy, Hallucinogens, Humans, Psilocybin, Psychotherapy, Research Design, Substance-Related Disorders, Functional Neuroimaging
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
