Cited by 143Eating Disorders and BehaviorsNutrition, Health and Food BehaviorRegulation of Appetite and Obesity

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Is Fast Food Addictive?

K. Garber, Andrea, H. Lustig, Robert·2011·Current Drug Abuse Reviewse

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Abstract

Studies of food addiction have focused on highly palatable foods. While fast food falls squarely into that category, it has several other attributes that may increase its salience. This review examines whether the nutrients present in fast food, the characteristics of fast food consumers or the presentation and packaging of fast food may encourage substance dependence, as defined by the American Psychiatric Association. The majority of fast food meals are accompanied by a soda, which increases the sugar content 10-fold. Sugar addiction, including tolerance and withdrawal, has been demonstrated in rodents but not humans. Caffeine is a "model" substance of dependence; coffee drinks are driving the recent increase in fast food sales. Limited evidence suggests that the high fat and salt content of fast food may increase addictive potential. Fast food restaurants cluster in poorer neighborhoods and obese adults eat more fast food than those who are normal weight. Obesity is characterized by resistance to insulin, leptin and other hormonal signals that would normally control appetite and limit reward. Neuroimaging studies in obese subjects provide evidence of altered reward and tolerance. Once obese, many individuals meet criteria for psychological dependence. Stress and dieting may sensitize an individual to reward. Finally, fast food advertisements, restaurants and menus all provide environmental cues that may trigger addictive overeating. While the concept of fast food addiction remains to be proven, these findings support the role of fast food as a potentially addictive substance that is most likely to create dependence in vulnerable populations.

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Holstein, S. E., Barkell, G. A., & Young, M. R. (2021) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2020.12.004 · Cited by 14
Prevalence of Fast Food Intake among a Multi-Ethnic Population of Young Men and Its Connection with Sociodemographic Determinants and Obesity
ALTAMIMI, J. Z., Alshwaiyat, N. M., Alkhalidy, H., AlFaris, N. A., AlKehayez, N. M., Alsemari, M. A., & Alagal, R. I. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192214933 · Cited by 20
“Obesity is usually connected with dietary patterns characterized by food cravings [51].”
Background
ACTonFOOD: opportunities of ACT to address food addiction
Cattivelli, R., Pietrabissa, G., Ceccarini, M., Spatola, C. A. M., Villa, V., Caretti, A., Gatti, A., Manzoni, G. M., & Castelnuovo, G. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00396 · Cited by 13
“Palatable food can activate the brain reward system through fast input sensors and post-binging outcomes, which results in higher glucose levels in the brain and the blood (Garber and Lustig, 2011).”
Background
Appetitive Needs and Addiction
Sussman, S. Y., & Pakdaman, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.004 · Cited by 12
Caffeine increases liking and consumption of novel-flavored yogurt
Panek-Shirley, L. M., Swoboda, C. M., Bendlin, A., & Temple, J. L. (2013) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-013-2971-6 · Cited by 11
“The purpose of exogenous caffeine in soda and energy drinks is unknown, but many have speculated that it enhances hedonic and reinforcing effects of beverages with which it is paired, which increases consumption and sales of those beverages (Garber and Lustig 2011; Griffith and Vernotica 2009).”
Background
[Type 2 Diabetes and Dietary Patterns 1961 to 2009: Some Social Determinants in Mexico].
Moreno-Altamirano, L., Silberman, M. S., Hernández-Montoya, D., Capraro, S., Soto-Estrada, G., García-García, J. J., & Bosch, E. S. (2015) · PubMed · Cited by 10
The Relationship Between Sugar-Sweetened Beverages, Takeaway Dietary Pattern, and Psychological and Behavioral Problems Among Children and Adolescents in China
Zhang, Y., Wu, X., Wang, Q., Zong, Q., Wang, R., Li, T., Tao, S., & Tao, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.573168 · Cited by 13
“Unhealthy home food availability increased takeaway diet pattern, further influencing the consumption of SSBs (68).”
Background
Dietary patterns, overweight and obesity from 1961 to 2011 in the socioeconomic and political context of Argentina
Silberman, M. S., Moreno-Altamirano, L., Hernández-Montoya, D., Capraro, S., García-García, J. J., & Soto-Estrada, G. (2016) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/09637486.2016.1221384 · Cited by 9
“In addition, sugar alters the hunger–satiety cycle, producing dependency and provoking homeostatic problems in the body (Garber & Lustig 2011).”
Background
Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and disorders of energy balance
Weiss, R., & Lustig, R. H. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4557-4858-7.00031-7 · Cited by 9
Are Eating Disorders Addictions?
Brewerton, T. D. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45378-6_13 · Cited by 9
Eating ourselves to death: How food is a drug and what food abuse costs
Robinson, M. B. (2022) · Drug Science Policy and Law · doi:10.1177/20503245221112577 · Cited by 8
The science against sugar, alone, is insufficient in tackling the obesity and type 2 diabetes crises – We must also overcome opposition from vested interests
Malhotra, A., Schofield, G., & Lustig, R. H. (2018) · Journal of Metabolic Health · doi:10.4102/jir.v3i1.39 · Cited by 8
Qualitative Approaches to the Study of Substance and Behavioral Addictions
Simpson, K. A., & Bluthenthal, R. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.013 · Cited by 10
The Role of High Salt Intake in the Development and Progression of Diverse Diseases
Kompanowska‐Jezierska, E., & Olszyński, K. H. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811442-1.00013-4 · Cited by 7
Fast Food Intake, Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Adolescents with Overweight and Obese Problems Participating in MyBFF@school Intervention Program
Ishak, Z., Fin, L. S., Ibrahim, W. A. H. W., Zain, F. M., Yahya, A., Selamat, R., Jalaludin, M. Y., & Mokhtar, A. H. (2022) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440221086604 · Cited by 7
“The high fat and salt content in fast food may cause it to become potentially addictive (Garber & Lustig, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluential
Consumption of ultraprocessed food is associated with higher blood pressure among 6-year-old children from southern Brazil
Valmórbida, J. L., Baratto, P. S., Leffa, P. D. S., Sangalli, C. N., da Silva, J. A., & Vítolo, M. R. (2023) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2023.05.012 · Cited by 8
Does Sugar Addiction Really Cause Obesity?
Peters, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroenergetics · doi:10.3389/fnene.2011.00011 · Cited by 6
Substance and Behavioral Addictions Assessment Instruments
Grigsby, T. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.012 · Cited by 6
Snacking and anxiety during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: A prospective cohort study
Curtin, E. L., Johnson, L., Salway, R., & Hinton, E. C. (2023) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2023.106491 · Cited by 5
“…snacks not sweet snacks (Paans et al., 2019; Sadler et al., 2021), therefore it could be that such traits exert a more potent effect on foods high in salt that have addictive properties (Garber & Lustig, 2011), a pattern that could not be ascertained through our measure of overall snacking.”
Effect of short-term intake of high- and low-concentrations of sucrose solution on the neurochemistry of male and female mice
Ren, J., Yin, K., Fan, G., Xiao, L., Zhao, L., Li, Z., Zhang, L., Xie, D., Pan, S., & Yuan, F. (2020) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d0fo02214d · Cited by 7
The battle over “food addiction”
Lustig, R. H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1621742 · Cited by 4
“Fast food contains four components whose hedonic properties have been examined: salt, fat, caffeine, and sugar (48).”
Endocrine hypertension: What is new?
Koch, C. A. (2012) · Revista Portuguesa de Endocrinologia Diabetes e Metabolismo · doi:10.1016/s1646-3439(12)70010-x · Cited by 4
Are sweetened drinks a gateway to alcohol, opiate and stimulant addiction? Summary of evidence and therapeutic strategies
de Silva, P. N. (2019) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2019.109469 · Cited by 4
Prevention and Treatment of Sex Addiction
Reid, R. C., Grubbs, J. B., & Kraus, S. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.025 · Cited by 4
Effect of Low Glycemic Index Stevia-Benefiber Sweetener on the Physical, Textural and Sensory Qualities of Oatmeal Raisin Cookies
Bukolt, K. F., Ramírez, N. C., Saenz, A., Mirza, K., Bhaduri, S., & Navder, K. P. (2019) · doi:10.35248/2157-7110.19.10.804 · Cited by 4
Perceived food palatability, blood glucose level and future discounting: Lack of evidence for blood glucose level’s impact on reward discounting
Muda, R., Sawicki, P., & Ginszt, M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255484 · Cited by 4
“On the deeper level, such a food rather does not produce crave to eat it once again or will not lead to overeating (in contrast to fast foods that might create addiction [32]).”
Background

Authors: K. Garber, A., & H. Lustig, R.
Venue: Current Drug Abuse Reviewse
Publisher: Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
Published: 2011-09-01
Volume: 4
Issue: 3
Pages: 146-162
ISSN: 1874-4737 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.2174/1874473711104030146
OpenAlex: W2092089565
Cited by: 143
References: 185
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 6
FWCI: 10.35
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Current Drug Abuse Reviews (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Center for Research Resources (UL1RR024131)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Keywords: food addiction, sugar addiction, caffeine dependence, obesity, insulin resistance, leptin resistance, food advertising, environmental cues, stress, dieting, highly palatable food, substance dependence
MeSH terms: Animals, Caffeine, Cues, Diet, Reducing, Dietary Fats, Humans, Stress, Psychological, Behavior, Addictive, Sodium Chloride, Dietary, Dietary Sucrose, Substance-Related Disorders, Fast Foods

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Is Fast Food Addictive?

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