Characterisation and in vitro and in vivo evaluation of supercritical-CO2-foamed β-TCP/PLCL composites for bone applications
Open accessAbstract
Most synthetic bone grafts are either hard and brittle ceramics or paste-like materials that differ in applicability from the gold standard autologous bone graft, which restricts their widespread use. Therefore, the aim of the study was to develop an elastic, highly porous and biodegradable β-tricalciumphosphate/poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) (β-TCP/PLCL) composite for bone applications using supercritical CO2 foaming. Ability to support osteogenic differentiation was tested in human adipose stem cell (hASC) culture for 21 d. Biocompatibility was evaluated for 24 weeks in a rabbit femur-defect model. Foamed composites had a high ceramic content (50 wt%) and porosity (65-67 %). After 50 % compression, in an aqueous environment at 37 °C, tested samples returned to 95 % of their original height. Hydrolytic degradation of β-TCP/PLCL composite, during the 24-week follow-up, was very similar to that of porous PLCL scaffold both in vitro and in vivo. Osteogenic differentiation of hASCs was demonstrated by alkaline phosphatase activity analysis, alizarin red staining, soluble collagen analysis, immunocytochemical staining and qRT-PCR. In vitro, hASCs formed a pronounced mineralised collagen matrix. A rabbit femur defect model confirmed biocompatibility of the composite. According to histological Masson-Goldner's trichrome staining and micro-computed tomography, β-TCP/PLCL composite did not elicit infection, formation of fibrous capsule or cysts. Finally, native bone tissue at 4 weeks was already able to grow on and in the β-TCP/PLCL composite. The elastic and highly porous β-TCP/PLCL composite is a promising bone substitute because it is osteoconductive and easy-to-use and mould intraoperatively.
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PLCL's adaptability through surface modification, blending with bioactive molecules, and processing through electrospinning, 3D printing, and supercritical carbon dioxide foaming has extended its use to multiple fields.
“In addition to its inherent properties, PLCL’s adaptability through surface modification, blending with bioactive molecules, and processing through advanced manufacturing techniques such as electrospinning, 3D printing, and supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂) foaming has extended its use to multiple fields [11–13].”
From Application of PLCL as a biodegradable polymer in biomedical engineering (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
The Introduction and Composite manufacturing and characterisation sections describe blending PLCL with bioactive β-TCP and processing the composite by supercritical CO₂ foaming. The Discussion describes a compression treatment that changes the composite surface. The paper does not establish PLCL blending with bioactive molecules, PLCL processing by 3D printing, or extension of its use to multiple fields; its study concerns bone applications. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPLCL scaffolds prepared by supercritical carbon dioxide contain abundant pore structure, facilitating cell adhesion and proliferation, interstitial fluid transport, and vascular and tissue ingrowth, with applications in bone, nerve, vascular, and cartilage repair.
“In addition, PLCL scaffolds prepared by the supercritical carbon dioxide method contain abundant pore structure, which facilitates cell adhesion and proliferation, interstitial fluid transport, and vascular and tissue ingrowth within the scaffold, so they have many applications in bone tissue engineering, nerve tissue engineering, vascular tissue engineering and cartilage repair [13, 118–120].”
From Application of PLCL as a biodegradable polymer in biomedical engineering (2026) · cites this paper as [13]
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Cited by
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Application of PLCL as a biodegradable polymer in biomedical engineering
Zhao, Y., & Liu, H. (2026) · Journal of Materials Science Materials in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10856-026-07016-3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, F.-3. T. U., Pitkänen, S., Paakinaho, K., Pihlman, H., Ahola, N., Hannula, M., Asikainen, S., Manninen, M., Morelius, M., Keränen, P., Hyttinen, J., Kellomäki, M., Laitinen-Vapaavuori, O., & Miettinen, S.
- Affiliations
- Tampere University (FI)
- University of Helsinki (FI)
- Aalto University (FI)
- Tekonivelsairaala Orton (FI)
- Corresponding author
- Pitkänen, S
- ORCID
- Venue
- European Cells and Materials
- Publisher
- Forum Multimedia Publishing LLC
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 38
- Pages
- 35-50
- ISSN
- 1473-2262 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2985171021
- Cited by
- 10
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2
- FWCI
- 0.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- European Cells and Materials (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Aaltodoc (Aalto University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja (submittedVersion)
- Tampere University Institutional Repository (Tampere University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Suomen Kulttuurirahasto
- Tekes
- Tampereen Yliopisto
- Tays
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Bone Tissue Engineering Materials
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › biodegradable polymer synthesis and properties
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Titanium Alloys Microstructure and Properties
- Keywords
- beta-tricalcium phosphate, poly(L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone), supercritical CO2 foaming, bone substitutes, human adipose-derived stem cells, osteogenic differentiation, hydrolytic degradation, biocompatibility, osteoconduction, mechanical elasticity
- MeSH terms
- Adipose Tissue, Alkaline Phosphatase, Animals, Calcium Phosphates, Carbon Dioxide, Cell Differentiation, Cells, Cultured, Collagen, Elasticity, Osteoblasts, Osteogenesis, Polyesters, Rabbits, Porosity, Compressive Strength, Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplantation, Tissue Scaffolds, Mesenchymal Stem Cells
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