Racial Tolerance as a Function of Group Position

“Finally, work on ethnic threat and competition has consistently found a nonlinear relation between heterogeneity and racial relations (Blalock 1967; Smith 1981).”

“of racial equality and integration (Taylor, Sheatsley, & Greeley, 1978), there is pronounced opposition to specific policies like busing (Kelley, 1974), affirmative action (Lipset & Schneider, 1978), or any situation that might alter the predominance of whites over blacks (Farley, Schuman, Bianchi, Colasanto, & Hatche…”

“It also accounts for much of the attractiveness of the theory to sociological analysts of race relations (Almaguer, 1994; Fossett & Kiecolt, 1989; Smith, 1981; Wellman, 1977; Wilson, 1973).”

“In empirical research, the Group Position approach has been mainly used to guide the selection of group-level variables (Quillian, 1995; Smith, 1981).”

“…of public transportation, but they found no differences between educational groups with respect to the approval of residential integration.2 Smith (1981) compared approval of the principle of school desegregation with willingness to send one’s children to a school where a few, half, or…”

“For further studies on attitudes toward out-groups in general and pre-judice see for example Adorno et al., 1950; Allport, 1954; Smith, 1981; Bierly, 1985; Schuetz and Six, 1996; Altemeyer, 1998; Bobo, 1999; Brewer, 1999; Whitley, 1999.”

“The indicators are: Education: this classic variable has been shown repeatedly across space and time to have a positive effect on anti-immigrant attitudes (e.g. Coenders and Scheepers 2003; Hjerm 2001; Smith 1981),11 a result that is often explained by the liberalising effect of education.”

“1 Among others, these include realistic group conflict theory (see Bobo, 1983, 1988; Sherif, 1966), the group-positions model (see Blumer, 1961; Smith, 1981), neoclassical hegemony models (see Gramsci, 1976; Marx & Engels, 1846/1970), the racial oppression model (see Turner, Singleton, & Musick, 1984), paternalistic-o…”

“Prejudice is also a consequence of situational influences such as an individual’s perceived social position (Smith, 1981).”

“Education: This classic variable has been shown repeatedly across space and time to correlate negatively with anti-immigrant attitudes (e.g. Smith, 1981; Hjerm, 2001; Coenders and Scheepers, 2003),10 a result that is often explained by the liberalizing effect of education.”

“The size argument can explain the relationship between whites and AfricanAmericans in the US (Fosset and Kiecolt, 1989; Glaser, 1994; Quillian, 1996; Smith, 1981; Taylor, 1998, 2000), but becomes questionable when we consider other group relations.”

“, group positions model, social dominance theory) that suggest that politically conservative individuals are more likely to legitimize existing hierarchical relations between dominant and nondominant groups (e.g., Blumer, 1961; Sidanius, Pratto, & Bobo, 1996; Smith, 1981).”

“Among a range of views about racism, it has long been accepted that it is negatively associated with affluence and educational attainment (see Nunn et al., 1978; Smith, 1981).”

“, Bobo, 1988; McClaren, 2003); (b) demographic and economic conditions that intensify members’ sense of racial competition also tend to intensify their resistance to practical interventions designed to promote racial equality (e.g., Bobo, 1983; Quillian, 2005; Smith, 1981); and (c) the degree of prejudice directed tow…”

“…the racial and ethnic composition of one’s context as a proxy for threat to the group’s position rather than measure perceptions of threat directly (Smith 1981; Glaser 1994; Quillian 1995; Oliver and Mendelberg 2000; Glaser 2003; Lee et al. 2003; Oliver and Wong 2003; Campbell, Wong, and Citrin…”

“…or perceived, to the interests and privileges of the dominant group (Blumer 1958; Bobo 1983; Bobo and Hutchings 1996; Bobo and Klugel 1993; Case, Greely, and Fuchs 1989; Kinder and Sanders 1996; Quillian 1995, 1996; Scheepers, Gijsberts, and Coenders 2002; Smith 1981; Sniderman and Carmines 1997).”

“For example, those who are younger and more highly educated are statistically more likely to be supportive of multiculturalism and its values (Nunn et al., 1978; Smith, 1981).”

“It has long been accepted that racism is negatively associated with af uence and educational attainment (see Nunn et al. 1978; Smith 1981).5 Similarly, electoral support for political parties with racially discriminatory policies or pronouncements has been found greater in urban areas of…”

“Researchers have found that racial preferences are widely favored by African Americans but largely opposed by a majority of whites (Schuman, Steeh, Bobo and Krysan 1997; Kinder and Sanders 1996; Smith 1981; Taylor, Sheatsley and Greeley 1978).”

“Another explanation for emerging White opposition to Black progress was White perceived self-interest and a sense that affirmative action violated their egalitarian principles (Kluegel & Smith, 1983; Smith, 1981).”

“The use of recent data is especially important in testing our hypotheses since evidence suggests that racial tolerance has increased over the past decades and that regional differences in tolerance may be abating (Greeley and Sheatsley 1971; Hyman and Sheatsley 1956, 1964; Smith 1981; Taylor, Sheatsley, and Greeley 19…”

“We also know that high levels of education go together with low levels of xenophobia (Smith, 1981; Hjerm, 2001; Coenders and Scheepers, 2003), a result that is often explained by the liberalizing effect of education.10 This implies that the parents’ level of education may be decisive in determining…”

“Although Americans value egalitarianism in specific areas of life, they often manifest attitudes regarding skin color and social power that are incongruous with this ideology (Smith, 1981).”

“Race relations and racial attitudes in the United States have changed dramatically over the past quarter of a century (e.g., Allen and Farley 1986; Pettigrew 1985; Schuman, Steeh, and Bobo 1985; Smith 1981).”

“…immigrants and the longer they have been 3 living in a given town, the lesser the prejudice and discrimination they will experience (for example, Smith, 1981; Jaret, 1995; Farley, 2000). and Kamasaki (1994), Subervi (2004) and Montalvo (2006), indicates that there is considerable lack of media…”

“The bulk of research dealing with US regional subcultures shows views toward Black Americans are less accepting or tolerant in the South than in other regions (Bobo & Kluegel, 1993; Carter, 2005; Kuklinski, Cobb, & Gilens, 1997; Middleton, 1976; Smith, 1981; Taylor, Greeley, & Sheatsley, 1978).”

“It is argued that the well-educated are more tolerant of individual differences (Smith, 1981) and are more likely to go beyond their own social sphere (Wuthnow, 2003).”

“Using questions mainly focusing on principles of racial equality, past research has shown a continued impact of urbanism over time [14, 28, 29].”

“Snijders et al 2007). The p* model that we estimated follows the conventional form used in studies such as Moody (2001), Lubbers (2003) or Mouw and Entwisle (2006), but is much simpler than the models used by these authors, because it contains only the effects”

“Third, people find it very easy to hold inconsistent beliefs; so, principled, well intentioned, ethical individuals can draw upon incompatible attitudes to justify their dominance (Smith, 1981, p. 569).”

“However, while higher education may reduce prejudice and negative attitudes towards out-groups (Schuman, Steeh, Bobo, and Krysan 1997, Smith 1981, 1985), higher levels of education may reinforce positive attachment to an ethnic ingroup (Hansen and Hesli 2009).”

“Some research has inferred feelings of threat based on compositional preferences (Schuman et al., 1985; Smith, 1981) or in-depth interviews (Wellman, 1977).”