Cannibalism, Warfare, and Drought in the Mesa Verde Region during the Twelfth Century A.D.
Abstract
The existence of cannibalism has emerged as one of the most controversial issues in the archaeology of the American Southwest. In this paper, we examine this issue by presenting the results of our investigation at 5MT10010, a small early Pueblo III habitation site in southwestern Colorado. Battered, broken bones from seven individuals were discovered in two adjacent pithouses at 5MT10010. Mixed and incomplete remains of four adults and an adolescent were recovered from the floor and ventilator shaft of one pithouse; the remains of two subadults were found on the floor and in various subfeatures of the second. Cut marks and percussion scars implicate humans in the disarticulation and reduction of these bodies. Evidence of heat exposure on some bone fragments and laboratory analyses of a human coprolite recovered from one of the pithouses support the interpretation that people prepared and consumed human body parts. The discovery of disarticulated human remains at 5MT10010 is one of a number of similar finds in the northern Southwest. Analysis of cases from the Mesa Verde region indicates a sharp increase in cannibalism around A.D. 1150, a time of drought and the collapse of the Chaco system. The causes, consequences, and nature of this apparent outbreak of cannibalism are examined in light of 5MT10010 and other recent finds.
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In the Pithouse Feature 3 assemblage at 5MT10010, chop marks and percussion damage have been documented, although some cranial fractures could have been the result of peri-mortem trauma.
“Chops marks and percussion damage have also been documented, although some cranial fractures could have been the result of peri-mortem trauma.”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Pithouse Feature 3 at 5MT10010 contained 1150 human bone fragments from a minimum of five individuals (an 11-year-old child and four adults).
“Pithouse Feature 3 human assemblage counts 1150 human bone fragments from a minimum of five individuals (an 11-year-old child and four adults).”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
In the Pithouse Feature 3 assemblage at 5MT10010, most bones are broken and 25 bones (including vertebrae, ribs and long bones) have evidence of cut marks.
“Most of the bones are broken, 25 bones (including vertebrae, ribs and long bones) have evidence of cut marks.”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Excavations at 5MT10010 uncovered human bone fragments scattered on the floors of three pit-houses.
“Excavations at the site uncovered human bone fragments scattered on the floors of three pit-houses.”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Vertebrae are relatively well represented within the Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage at 5MT10010.
“Vertebrae are relatively well represented within this assemblage (Billman et al., 2000).”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Pithouse Feature 15 at 5MT10010 only contained two human femur fragments, which have subsequently been attributed to the Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage.
“Pithouse Feature 15 only contained two human femur fragments, which have subsequently been attributed to Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage (Billman et al., 2000).”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
In the Pithouse Feature 3 assemblage at 5MT10010, only a few bones have evidence of fire exposure and there is no clear evidence of pot-polishing modifications.
“Only a few bones have evidence of fire exposure and there is no clear evidence of pot-polishing modifications.”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
In the Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage at 5MT10010, most remains come from a hearth, which could explain the high frequency of evidence of burning/cooking.
“Most of the remains come from a hearth, and this could explain the high frequency of evidence of burning/cooking.”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Pithouse Feature 13 at 5MT10010 contained 479 human bone fragments from two subadult individuals (a 7.5-year-old child and a 14-year-old adolescent).
“Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage counts 479 human bone fragments from two subadult individuals (a 7.5-year-old child and a 14-year-old adolescent).”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Vertebrae are well represented in the Pithouse Feature 3 assemblage at 5MT10010.
“Vertebrae are well represented in the assemblage (Billman et al., 2000).”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Despite limited burning/cooking evidence for both assemblages at 5MT10010, none of the pit-houses were burned, suggesting that burning was more likely associated with a process of cooking.
“Despite the limited amount of burning/cooking evidence for both assemblages, none of the pit-houses were burned, suggesting that burning was more likely associated with a process of cooking (Billman et al., 2000).”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Thirteen fragments of scapulae from five different individuals found in Pithouse Feature 13 at 5MT10010 appear to have been deliberately placed in a symmetric position, compared to other scattered remains.
“Moreover, 13 fragments of scapulae from five different individuals found in pit-house Feature 13 appear to have been deliberately placed in a symmetric position, compared to other scattered remains.”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
In the Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage at 5MT10010, perimortem fractures are abundant and some remains have evidence of tool marks (cut marks and chop marks).
“Perimortem fractures are abundant, and some remains also have evidence of tool marks (cut marks and chop marks).”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
Only one case in North America (Site 5 MT100010, Cowboy Wash, Colorado) shows undeniable evidence of cannibalism.
“Although only one case in north America (Site 5 MT100010, Cowboy Wash, Colorado; Billman et al., 2000) shows undeniable evidence of cannibalism,”
From The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism (2025) · cites this paper as Billman et al., 2000
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References 70 · Cited by 143
- Authors
- Billman, B. R., Lambert, P. M., & Leonard, B. L.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Utah State University (US)
- ORCID
- Billman, Brian R.
- Venue
- American Antiquity
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2000-01
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 145-178
- ISSN
- 0002-7316 (ISSN-L)
- 2325-5064
- OpenAlex
- W2014782956
- Cited by
- 143
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 8.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Antiquity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Archaeological and Geological Studies
- Keywords
- cannibalism, skeletal remains, Pueblo III, Mesa Verde, drought, war, coprolites, cut marks, disarticulated bones, southwestern United States, 12th century
- MeSH terms
- Anthropology, Archaeology, Cannibalism, Colorado, Disasters, Humans, Indians, North American, History, Medieval
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