The Archaeology of Cannibalism: a Review of the Taphonomic Traits Associated with Survival and Ritualistic Cannibalism

May combine two claims.

At NgLj-2, 92 bones were cut-marked by a metal blade; all anatomical elements except skulls, patellae, and carpals show cut marks; three long bones show ancient breakage; none show peeling or cooking.

“Ninetytwo bones were cut-marked by a metal blade.With the exception of the skulls, patellae and carpal bones, all other anatomical elements show evidence of cut marks.Three long bones, two radii and a tibia, also present evidence of ancient breakage.None of the bones at the site showed evidence of peeling or cooking (Table 1).”

• cites Keenleyside et al. (1997) sourcePartly supported

  The Results (page not available) report 92 bones with cuts characteristic of metal blades, no cuts on the recovered crania, patellae or carpals, and fractures in two radii and a tibia. They say cut marks occurred on most types of elements, not explicitly all other types, and could not determine when the fractures occurred. The paper reports no evidence of burning, but does not address peeling or cooking as such (searched: peeling, cooking). (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

At NgLj-3, only four bones have evidence of cut marks and there is no evidence of breakage of bones to extract marrow.

“Only four bones (a sacral vertebra, a right scapula and two tibiae) have evidence of cut marks and there is no evidence of breakage of the bones to extract bone marrow (Table 1).”

• cites Stenton et al. (2015) sourcePartly supported

  The Cut Marks section reports cut marks on exactly four NgLj-3 bones: a sacral vertebra, a right scapula fragment, and two tibiae. The Inventory attributes damage to several long-bone ends to animal scavenging, but the paper does not explicitly assess whether bones were broken to extract marrow; the Pathological and Non-Pathological Features section also notes a rib break of uncertain timing. Thus, the marrow-extraction part is not established by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

At NgLj-2, 304 human fragments belonging to a minimum of eight male individuals, all under age 50, were identified; the remains were generally well preserved with minimum breakage and 33 vertebrae were present.

“Keenleyside et al. (1997) identified 304 human fragments belonging to a minimum of eight male individuals, all under the age of 50.The skeletal remains were generally well preserved with minimum breakage and the vertebrae were fairly well represented (total of 33 vertebrae present; Keenleyside et al., 1997, p. 39).”

• cites Keenleyside et al. (1997) sourcePartly supported

  Materials and Methods (page unavailable) reports a morphological minimum of eight individuals, but also says another analysis indicated at least 11. Results (page unavailable) identifies the remains as male and estimates all individuals to have been under 50. The copy does not substantiate 304 fragments or describe the remains generally as well preserved with minimal breakage: it reports weathered surface remains and excellent-condition subsurface remains. Table 4's vertebral counts sum to 33, although Materials and Methods describes vertebrae as few. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

At NgLj-3, 79 human fragments belonging to a minimum of three young males were identified; the remains were generally well preserved with minimum breakage and 11 vertebrae were present.

“Stenton et al. (2015) identified 79 human fragments belonging to a minimum of three young males (MNI = 3).The skeletal remains were generally well preserved with minimum breakage and the vertebrae were fairly well represented (total of 11 vertebrae present; Stenton et al., 2015: p. 35).”

• cites Stenton et al. (2015) sourcePartly supported

  The Site Description and Inventory report 79 human bones and bone fragments at NgLj-3, and the Discussion identifies remains of three males, but says only one was a young adult. The Site Description says the buried bones appeared to be in good condition; the Inventory nevertheless records damage to several bones and lists 12 pre-sacral vertebrae in the burial, plus a vertebra found on the surface—not 11 vertebrae. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The Qaranicagi earth-oven skeleton lacks cranial elements, most vertebrae and the pelvis, and the small bones of the hands and feet.

“The skeleton lacks the cranial elements, most of the vertebrae and the pelvis, as well as the small bones of the hands and feet.”

• cites Pietrusewsky et al., 2007 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The human remains from the Qaranicagi midden context are highly fragmented and several fragments are blackened by heat exposure.

“The human remains from the midden context are highly fragmented and several fragments are blackened by heat exposure.”

• cites Pietrusewsky et al., 2007 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

At Morpa, only one individual was present, represented by long bone fragments; these fragments bear no clear evidence of cut marks and percussion damage, possibly due to high fragmentation and burning.

“At Morpa site, only one individual was present, represented by long bone fragments (number undetermined in Shaw & Coxe, 2021, pp. 55-56).These fragments bear no clear evidence of cut marks and percussion damage, possibly due to high level of fragmentation and burning of the fragments (Table 2).”

• cites Shaw & Coxe, 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Skeletal remains section (cited pp. 55–56) identifies clustered long-bone fragments at Morpa and says they were heavily burnt. It says the fragments *may* have come from a single individual, rather than establishing that only one was present. It does not state that fragmentation and burning explain an absence of clear cut marks or percussion damage. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The MNI from the Qaranicagi midden context is four: two individuals from Layer IV, and two adults from Layers II and III.

“Based on the presence of both adult and subadult cranial remains, the MNI from the midden context has been calculated as four: two individuals from Layer IV, and 2 adults from Layers II and III (Pietrusewsky et al., 2007).”

• cites Pietrusewsky et al., 2007 sourcePartly supported

  The Qaranicagi Cave Excavations section (page unavailable) reports two adults from TU 2 and TU 3, primarily in Layers II and III. For TU 1 in Layer IV, however, it gives an MNI of “at least two or three,” so it does not establish an exact midden-context MNI of four. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The morphology of cut marks on the Qaranicagi earth-oven remains has been associated with the use of bamboo knives.

“The morphology of these marks has been associated with the use of bamboo knives (Pietrusewsky et al., 2007).”

• cites Pietrusewsky et al., 2007 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Fiji Navatu midden assemblage has also been interpreted as a form of gastronomic cannibalism due to the high frequency of modifications.

“Although the midden assemblage has also been interpreted as a form of gastronomic cannibalism due to the high frequency of modifications (Fernández-Jalvo & Andrews, 2021, p. 385)”

• cites Fernández-Jalvo & Andrews, 2021 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The Booth Point site and the Charity Site in Ontario may reflect an advanced or end stage of survival cannibalism.

“The NgLj2 and Erebus Bay assemblages may reflect a more advanced stage of survival cannibalism, and the Booth Point site and the Charity Site in Ontario, an advanced or end stage of survival cannibalism (Mays & Beattie, 2016;Spence & Jackson, 2014;Stenton et al., 2015).”

• cites Mays & Beattie, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Spence & Jackson, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Stenton et al., 2015 sourceCould not verify

  The Source of the Assemblage section discusses cut marks and possible survival cannibalism at the Franklin expedition’s NgLj-3 and NgLj-2 sites. Searches for “Booth Point,” “Charity Site Ontario,” and an advanced or end stage of survival cannibalism found no passage addressing the claim about those two sites. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Ritualistic cannibalism can be manifested in a variety of expressions.

“the variety of expressions in which ritualistic cannibalism can be manifested”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Only few human assemblages, such as the Aztec pre-Columbian tradition and the Fiji assemblage, are cited and used as archaeological examples of ritualistic cannibalism.

“Only few human assemblages, such as the Aztec pre-Columbian tradition (Wade, 2018) and the Fiji assemblage (DeGusta, 1999(DeGusta, , 2000)), are cited and used as archaeological examples of ritualistic cannibalism.”

• cites Wade, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites DeGusta, 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites DeGusta, 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The motivations for cannibalism have been more often reduced to three categories: ritualistic, dietary, and survival.

“Therefore, the motivations for cannibalism have been more often reduced to three categories: ritualistic (aggressive or affectionate), dietary and survival (Flinn et al., 1976, p. 308).”

• cites Flinn et al., 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

For other notorious cases of survival cannibalism, such as the wreck of the frigate Méduse or the Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571, there has never been an osteological study of the human remains.

“For other notorious cases of survival cannibalism, such as the wreck of the frigate Méduse (coast of West Africa, 1816) or the air crash of the Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 in the Andes (Argentina, 1972), there has never been an osteological study of the human remains.”

May combine two claims.

At Charity site, 33 fragments show evidence of thermal exposure and 12 fragments show evidence of pot polishing.

“Thirtythree fragments show evidence of thermal exposure, and 12 fragments show evidence of pot polishing (sensu White, 1992, pp. 120-124).”

• cites White, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Evidence for ritualistic cannibalism comes from its recurrent appearance within a historical context, as a widespread activity over time and as an established customary behaviour for the group involved.

“On the other hand, evidence for ritualistic cannibalism comes from its recurrent appearance within a historical context, as a widespread activity over time and as an established customary behaviour for the group involved.”

May combine two claims.

At Erebus Bay scattered remains, 27 human remains representing a minimum of two individuals were identified; no knife-marks or burning were identified; two long bone fragments have proximal and distal breaks associated with polishing tentatively interpreted as pot polishing.

“Mays and Beattie (2016) identified 27 human remains (seven long bones, two scapulae, a rib, a metatarsal, a metacarpal, a vertebra and 14 articulated foot bones), representing a minimum of two individuals.No knife-marks or traces of burning were identified on any of the human remains.Two long bone fragments have evidence of proximal and distal breaks associated with polishing.”

• cites Mays and Beattie (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites White, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For the Namosi sample, 13 human bones (NMI = 4) were found embedded in a tree fork.

“For the Namosi sample, 13 human bones (NMI = 4) were found embedded in a tree fork.”

• cites Spennemann, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The analysis and interpretations of other Fijian skeletal assemblages are suggestive of complex and diverse mortuary behaviours in Fiji.

“However, it is worth mentioning that the analysis and interpretations of these assemblages are suggestive of complex and diverse mortuary behaviours in Fiji.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

At Ana Manuku (MAN-84), 1864 bone fragments representing a minimum of 41 individuals (14 adults and 27 subadults) were recovered; all human remains come from a midden context close to or inside an earth oven mixed with anthropically modified faunal remains; 84% of bones were moderately or heavily heated.

“The human assemblage is composed of 1864 bone fragments recovered from three distinct layers (Steadman et al., 2000: p. 878), representing a MNI of 41 individuals ranging in age from foetal/newborn to adults (MNI = 14 adults; 27 subadults).All human remains come from a midden context close to or inside an earth oven, mixed with other anthropically modified faunal remains (fish, rats, birds)”

• cites Steadman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the Pithouse Feature 3 assemblage at 5MT10010, chop marks and percussion damage have been documented, although some cranial fractures could have been the result of peri-mortem trauma.

“Chops marks and percussion damage have also been documented, although some cranial fractures could have been the result of peri-mortem trauma.”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Vunda midden sample (NISP = 134, MNI = 3) is composed of highly fragmented human remains discarded together with other butchered faunal remains.

“The identified Vunda midden sample (NISP = 134, MNI = 3) was described as composed of highly fragmented human remains discarded together with other butchered faunal remains (Gifford, 1951).”

• cites Gifford, 1951Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

At Navatu midden, peeling was observed on six human remains and crushing was observed on the epiphyses of three bones of the hands and feet.

“Peeling was observed on six human remains and crushing was observed on the epiphyses of three bones of the hands and feet.”

• cites DeGusta, 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Archaeological sites of Pueblos in Mesa Verde dating between 1150 and 1300 CE have been described as bearing evidence of cannibalism, and the modifications on human remains, their spatial distribution and contexts have been used as baselines to define taphonomic traits associated with cannibalism.

“Archaeological sites of Pueblos in Mesa Verde dating between 1150 and 1300 CE (during the Pueblo III period), not only have been described as bearing evidence of cannibalism, but the modifications on the human remains, their spatial distribution and contexts have been used as baselines to define the taphonomic traits associated with cannibalism (Turner & Turner, 1999;White, 1992).”

• cites Turner & Turner, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites White, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

At Vunda, while there are no statistically significant differences, medium-size mammal remains have noticeably higher frequencies of burning, cut marks, percussion pits, and peeling than the midden human sample.

“However, while there are no statistically significant differences, the medium-size mammal remains present at the site have noticeably higher frequencies of burning, cut marks, percussion pits and peeling than the midden human sample (DeGusta, 2000).”

• cites DeGusta, 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Gifford's hypothesis that the human bones in the Vunda midden were the result of aggressive cannibalism is contradicted by DeGusta, who suggests that most, if not all, the midden human remains were part of formal burials.

“The hypothesis of Gifford (1951) that the human bones in the Vunda midden were the result of aggressive cannibalism is contradicted by DeGusta (2000) who suggests that most, if not all, the midden human remains were part of formal burials.”

• cites Gifford (1951)Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites DeGusta (2000)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In Vunda, ancient breakage and fragmentation are relatively common in the midden human assemblage but virtually absent in the burial assemblage; cut marks are rare in both; possible human chewing and crushing are rare but recognized in the midden; one case of percussion damage is observed on a burial femur; some burning is recorded for the midden; overall the midden assemblage is more modified.

“Ancient breakage and fragmentation are relatively common in the midden human assemblage, but virtually absent in the burial assemblage.Cut marks are present, although rare in both assemblages.Possible human chewing and crushing are generally rare but have been recognised for the Vunda midden assemblage.Only one case of percussion damage has been observed on a femur from the burial assemblage.Some”

• cites DeGusta, 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In the Pithouse Feature 3 assemblage at 5MT10010, only a few bones have evidence of fire exposure and there is no clear evidence of pot-polishing modifications.

“Only a few bones have evidence of fire exposure and there is no clear evidence of pot-polishing modifications.”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Human remains at Nayau, Aiwa Levu and Aiwa Lailai were modified, although rarely, to make artefacts or tools; six human remains (probably from a human tibia or femur) appeared to have been burned, cut and modified to manufacture pins used for sail and thatching needles.

“Human remains at Nayau, Aiwa Levu and Aiwa Lailai were also modified, although rarely, to make artefacts or tools: six human remains (probably from a human tibia or femur) appeared to have been burned, cut and modified, in order to manufacture pins used for sail and thatching needles, a practice also documented by ethnographic evidence (Clunie, 1986;Jones et al., 2007Jones et al., , 2015)).”

• cites Clunie, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Jones et al., 2007 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Jones et al., 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the Pithouse Feature 3 assemblage at 5MT10010, most bones are broken and 25 bones (including vertebrae, ribs and long bones) have evidence of cut marks.

“Most of the bones are broken, 25 bones (including vertebrae, ribs and long bones) have evidence of cut marks.”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

At Fiji Navatu midden, 334 human fragments representing a minimum of seven individuals were found; human and faunal remains were mixed in the same deposit and all present a similar butchery pattern of cut-marked, broken, and burned bones.

“The midden assemblage (Navatu midden), loci 17A and 17B together, is composed of 334 human fragments representative of a minimum of seven individuals.Human and faunal (mammals, birds, fish) remains were mixed in the same deposit and all present a similar butchery pattern characterised by cut-marked, broken and burned bones (Table 2).”

• cites DeGusta (1999)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ideally, all the flesh had to be consumed and whatever remained un-eaten was burned.

“Ideally, all the flesh had to be consumed and whatever remained un-eaten was burned.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Wari' endo-cannibalism, initial disembowelment removed heart, liver and internal organs, which were wrapped in leaves before being roasted on a ceremonial roasting rack stand.

“with initial disembowelment to remove heart, liver and internal organs, which were wrapped in leaves before being roasted on a ceremonial roasting rack stand”

May combine two claims.

Wari' disposal of the final remains was made either by grinding and eating them or by burning and pulverizing them.

“Wari' disposal of the final remains was made either by grinding and eating them or by burning and pulverizing them (Conklin, 2001) (Table 3).”

• cites Conklin, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage at 5MT10010, perimortem fractures are abundant and some remains have evidence of tool marks (cut marks and chop marks).

“Perimortem fractures are abundant, and some remains also have evidence of tool marks (cut marks and chop marks).”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

When the body was partially decomposed, the killer ate part of the body, in particular the fat.

“When the body was partially decomposed, the killer ate part of the body, in particular the fat, which he would afterwards vomit (Albert, 1985, pp. 340-381) (Table 2).”

• cites Albert, 1985, pp. 340-381Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The level of decomposition of a body determined how much of the corpse was eaten.

“The level of decomposition of a body determined how much of the corpse was eaten.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Wari' endo-cannibalism, after initial disembowelment, the head was dismembered and limbs and joints were severed.

“followed by dismembering of the head and severing of the limbs and joints.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The bones were then cremated.

“After allowing the body to naturally decompose for about 30 to 45 days, the family members defleshed what was left and collected the bones which were then cremated.”

• cites Albert, 1985, pp. 387-423Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

After allowing the body to naturally decompose for about 30 to 45 days, the family members defleshed what was left and collected the bones.

“After allowing the body to naturally decompose for about 30 to 45 days, the family members defleshed what was left and collected the bones which were then cremated.”

• cites Albert, 1985, pp. 387-423Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vertebrae are relatively well represented within the Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage at 5MT10010.

“Vertebrae are relatively well represented within this assemblage (Billman et al., 2000).”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Despite limited burning/cooking evidence for both assemblages at 5MT10010, none of the pit-houses were burned, suggesting that burning was more likely associated with a process of cooking.

“Despite the limited amount of burning/cooking evidence for both assemblages, none of the pit-houses were burned, suggesting that burning was more likely associated with a process of cooking (Billman et al., 2000).”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Because of the nature of early reports of cannibals in Central and South America, there have been doubts about whether cannibalism was really practiced or how extensive the phenomenon was.

“Because of the nature of these reports, there have been doubts about whether cannibalism was really practiced or how extensive the phenomenon was.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Any soft tissue and bones left after the eating took place were burned and the ashes disposed of as 'garbage'.

“any soft tissue and bones left after the eating took place were burned and the ashes disposed of as 'garbage' (Conklin, 2001) (Table 2).”

• cites Conklin, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Soft tissues were eaten by all members of the Wari' community, with the exception of the persons responsible for the killing.

“Soft tissues were eaten by all members of the community, with the exception of the persons responsible for the killing”

• cites Conklin, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In case of endo-cannibalism, the funerary ritual started by covering the bodies of the deceased with leaves and leaving them in the forest not too far away from the main hut.

“In case of endo-cannibalism, the funerary ritual started by covering the bodies of the deceased with leaves, leaving them in the forest not too far away from the main hut.”

• cites Albert, 1985, pp. 387-423Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gertrude Dole assisted to the endo-cannibalistic funeral of a child who died while she was visiting the village.

“Gertrude Dole (1962) assisted to the endo-cannibalistic funeral of a child who died while she was visiting the village.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the case of younger children, most of the bodies were eaten, whereas in the case of heavily decomposed adult bodies, only a portion of the bodies were eaten, and the rest burned.

“In the case of younger children, most of the bodies were eaten, whereas in the case of heavily decomposed adult bodies, only a portion of the bodies were eaten, and the rest burned.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Once roasted, the flesh was removed from the bones and cut into thin pieces, which were eaten by the community, but not by the direct relatives of the deceased.

“Once roasted, the flesh was removed from the bones and cut into thin pieces, which were eaten by the community, but not by the direct relatives of the deceased.”

May combine two claims.

Three other nearby sites (5MT10207, 5MT10206 and 5MT7704), where human remains were found in a similar context, show remarkably comparable modification traits, possibly suggesting a recurrent pattern in Mesa Verde of aggressive exo-cannibalism.

“Three other nearby sites (5MT10207, 5MT10206 and 5MT7704), where human remains were found in a similar context, show remarkably comparable modification traits (Dice, 1993), possibly suggesting a recurrent pattern in Mesa Verde of aggressive exo-cannibalism.”

• cites Dice, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Wari' equated killing enemies with hunting animals.

“Wari' equated killing enemies with hunting animals.”

May combine two claims.

The Wari' practiced an elaborate form of cannibalism until the 1960s, when government workers and missionaries forced them to abandon the practice.

“They practiced an elaborate form of cannibalism until the 1960s, when government workers and missionaries forced them to abandon the practice.”

• cites Conklin, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These parts were then cooked on fire and brought back to the Wari' village.

“These parts were then cooked on fire and brought back to the village.”

May combine two claims.

In the Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage at 5MT10010, most remains come from a hearth, which could explain the high frequency of evidence of burning/cooking.

“Most of the remains come from a hearth, and this could explain the high frequency of evidence of burning/cooking.”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Pithouse Feature 15 at 5MT10010 only contained two human femur fragments, which have subsequently been attributed to the Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage.

“Pithouse Feature 15 only contained two human femur fragments, which have subsequently been attributed to Pithouse Feature 13 assemblage (Billman et al., 2000).”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The mixture was shared and consumed by the entire community.

“After cremation, the ashes were mixed together with a soup made from fermented bananas, which was shared and consumed by the entire community (Albert, 1985, pp. 387-423) (Table 3).”

• cites Albert, 1985, pp. 387-423Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Vertebrae are well represented in the Pithouse Feature 3 assemblage at 5MT10010.

“Vertebrae are well represented in the assemblage (Billman et al., 2000).”

• cites Billman et al., 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The flesh was eaten by members of the family.

“The cooking normally lasted all night and at dawn the fire was extinguished, and the flesh eaten by members of the family.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A second pot was adjusted over the first before pushing loose dirt into the grave.

“A second pot was adjusted over it before pushing loose dirt into the grave.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The remains were regularly stirred with a pole.

“Regularly, the remains were stirred with a pole, and wood was placed in the pot to finish burning the flesh.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A fire was made above this grave.

“The remains were then buried in the centre of the longhouse and a fire made above this grave.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The mother of the child picked out all the small calcinated bones still intact.

“The pot was then removed from the fire, and the mother of the child picked out all the small calcinated bones still intact.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

At dawn the fire was extinguished.

“The cooking normally lasted all night and at dawn the fire was extinguished, and the flesh eaten by members of the family.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The cooking pot was placed in the grave.

“A grave was prepared in the middle of the parents' house and the child placed in a cooking pot which was then placed in the grave.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The ceremonies imply the cooking of the deceased in pots placed on a hearth.

“All ceremonies were quite similar and imply the cooking of the deceased in pots placed on a hearth.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A week after the date of burial, the decaying remains were put into a third pot.

“A week after the date of burial, the decaying remains were put into a third pot, covered by a fourth one, and the body was cremated on a funeral pyre.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The pot was then removed from the fire.

“The pot was then removed from the fire, and the mother of the child picked out all the small calcinated bones still intact.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The men went hunting and killed all kinds of game.

“The men went hunting and killed all kinds of game and afterwards the game meat was eaten in a stew together with the powdered bones.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A grave was prepared in the middle of the parents' house.

“A grave was prepared in the middle of the parents' house and the child placed in a cooking pot which was then placed in the grave.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The cooking normally lasted all night.

“The cooking normally lasted all night and at dawn the fire was extinguished, and the flesh eaten by members of the family.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Later, the bones were dug up.

“Later, the bones were dug up and crushed.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The body was cremated on a funeral pyre.

“A week after the date of burial, the decaying remains were put into a third pot, covered by a fourth one, and the body was cremated on a funeral pyre.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is a large body of debate about the authenticity or accuracy of historic documents mentioning cannibalism.

“There is a large body of debate about the authenticity or accuracy of historic documents mentioning cannibalism (Jennings, 2011;McLaughlin, 2005;Sahlins, 2003)”

• cites Jennings, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites McLaughlin, 2005Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sahlins, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The child was initially wrapped in its mother skirt and blanket.

“The child was initially wrapped in its mother skirt and blanket.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

After wailing for some days over the remains, she ground the bones with some corn.

“After wailing for some days over the remains, she grounded the bones with some corn and drank the mixture (Table 3).”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The remains were then buried in the centre of the longhouse.

“The remains were then buried in the centre of the longhouse and a fire made above this grave.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The child was placed in a cooking pot.

“A grave was prepared in the middle of the parents' house and the child placed in a cooking pot which was then placed in the grave.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

These patterns have been observed for the Fiji Navatu assemblages, where both aggressive and funerary cannibalism have been documented by ethnographic sources.

“These patterns have in fact been observed for the Fiji Navatu assemblages, where both aggressive and funerary cannibalism have been documented by ethnographic sources (Sahlins, 1983).”

• cites Sahlins, 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The third pot was covered by a fourth one.

“A week after the date of burial, the decaying remains were put into a third pot, covered by a fourth one, and the body was cremated on a funeral pyre.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This meal was shared with all villagers who were called for a communal meal.

“This meal was shared with all villagers who were called for a communal meal (McCallum, 1999, pp. 455-456) (Table 2 and 3).”

• cites McCallum, 1999, pp. 455-456 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

She drank the mixture.

“After wailing for some days over the remains, she grounded the bones with some corn and drank the mixture (Table 3).”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Recognising reliable ethnographic sources is not always easy because historic 'ethnographic reports' were not necessarily science-driven observations, but rather popular stories often written by travellers and dilettantes, or by government and church officials with particular agendas.

“As commented on by Pickering (2018), recognising reliable ethnographic sources is not always easy as historic 'ethnographic reports' were not necessarily science-driven observations, but rather popular stories 'often written by travellers and dilettantes, or by government and church officials with particular agendas' (Pickering, 2018, p. 1).”

• cites Pickering, 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Afterwards, the game meat was eaten in a stew together with the powdered bones.

“The men went hunting and killed all kinds of game and afterwards the game meat was eaten in a stew together with the powdered bones.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All ceremonies were quite similar.

“All ceremonies were quite similar and imply the cooking of the deceased in pots placed on a hearth.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Fiji Navatu middle assemblage, interpreted as discarded remains of killed and cannibalised enemies as part of ritualistic exo-cannibalism, was highly modified and bones were discarded in midden deposits similarly to other faunal remains typically used as food.

“The Fiji Navatu middle assemblage, on the other hand, which has been interpreted to represent discarded remains of killed and cannibalised enemies as part of ritualistic exo-cannibalism, was highly modified and bones had been discarded in midden deposits similarly to other faunal remains typically used as food (DeGusta, 1999).”

• cites DeGusta, 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The human assemblage of Fiji Navatu burial, interpreted as a form of funerary endo-cannibalism, was minimally modified and human remains were disposed of separately from other faunal remains.

“For instance, the human assemblage of Fiji Navatu burial, which has been interpreted to represent a form of funerary endo-cannibalism (DeGusta, 2000), was minimally modified and human remains disposed of separately from other faunal remains.”

• cites DeGusta, 2000Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The bones were crushed.

“Later, the bones were dug up and crushed.”

• cites McCallum, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wood was placed in the pot to finish burning the flesh.

“Regularly, the remains were stirred with a pole, and wood was placed in the pot to finish burning the flesh.”

• cites Dole, 1962 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

At all these sites, despite differences in the frequencies of modifications, the motivation of cannibalism is the same: survival.

“However, from an interpretative point of view, despite the differences in the frequencies of modifications, the motivation of cannibalism is the same at all these sites: survival.”

May combine two claims.

The practice (cannibalism/butchering humans) was widespread throughout the Pacific both in middens and mortuary contexts.

“The practice was widespread throughout the Pacific both in middens and mortuary contexts”

• cites Anton & Steadman, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kirch, 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Poulsen, 1987Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

These decorative objects and tools seem to have included the remains of enemies, but also the bones of friends worn in memory.

“These seem to have included the remains of enemies, but also the bones of friends worn in memory (Storey, 2008).”

• cites Storey, 2008Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Historical descriptions of cannibalistic and non-cannibalistic funerary rituals in Fiji are manifested in such a wide variety of different butchery and consumption practices that virtually any osteological patterning could be accommodated.

“As DeGusta (1999, p. 240) commented, the historical descriptions of cannibalistic and non-cannibalistic funerary rituals in Fiji are manifested in '…such a wide variety of different butchery and consumption practices that virtually any osteological patterning could be accommodated'.”

• cites DeGusta, 1999Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The word 'saulaca' is used in Fiji to name both the tibial bone and a sailing needle.

“In Fiji, at least, cannibal victims are thought to be the source of this material and the word 'saulaca' is used to name both the tibial bone and a sailing needle (Spennemann, 1986, p. 93).”

• cites Spennemann, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Survival cannibalism is more random in its appearance because it is dictated by the occurrence of special and unpredictable circumstances.

“Although survival cannibalism is more random in its appearance because it is dictated by the occurrence of special and unpredictable circumstances,”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The reduced consumption of human bodies could have also been due to prejudices and moral restraints during the first stages of starvation.

“The reduced consumption of human bodies could have also been due to prejudices and moral restraints during the first stages of starvation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Fiji, cannibal victims are thought to be the source of this material.

“In Fiji, at least, cannibal victims are thought to be the source of this material and the word 'saulaca' is used to name both the tibial bone and a sailing needle (Spennemann, 1986, p. 93).”

• cites Spennemann, 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Amazonian funerary endo-cannibalism involved eating substantial amounts of soft tissues, including, in some cases, the ashes of the deceased.

“This contrasts markedly with the funerary endo-cannibalism practiced by Amazonian groups, who ate substantial amounts of soft tissues, including, in some cases, the ashes of the deceased (Conklin, 2001).”

• cites Conklin, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

On Wakaya, skeletal human remains from the sites of Korolevu and Delaini were equally found in burials and in midden contexts mixed with other butchered faunal bones and showing similar taphonomic traits.

“Likewise, on the island of Wakaya, skeletal human remains from the sites of Korolevu and Delaini were equally found in burials and in midden contexts mixed with other butchered faunal bones and showing similar taphonomic traits (Rechtman, 1992).”

• cites Rechtman, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Later stages of survival cannibalism, if further calories are required, manifest in extensive butchery (disarticulation and cutting) of the remains, which may leave more extensive modifications on the bone surfaces, including breaking of the long bones.

“Later stages, if further calories are required, manifest in the extensive butchery (disarticulation and cutting) of the remains, which may leave more extensive modifications on the bone surfaces, including breaking of the long bones (Mays & Beattie, 2016).”

• cites Mays & Beattie, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Similar rituals (e.g. funerary cannibalism practiced by different groups) can leave different signatures on bones.

“However, it is also possible that different cannibalistic motivations (exo-cannibalism and endo-cannibalism) can leave similar signatures, or that similar rituals (e.g.funerary cannibalism practiced by different groups) can leave different signatures on the bones.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These studies have focused on the analysis of Upper Palaeolithic personal ornaments, mobiliary art and funerary behaviours, all of which hold symbolic meaning and as such can better characterise cultural and social systems.

“These studies have focused on the analysis of Upper Palaeolithic personal ornaments, mobiliary art and funerary behaviours, all of which hold symbolic meaning and as such can better characterise cultural and social systems (Baker et al., 2024).”

• cites Baker et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A recent study of human assemblages from the Epigravettian and Magdalenian cultures has identified a potential association between burial practices and genetic ancestry.

“A recent study of human assemblages from two distinct later Upper Palaeolithic cultures, the Epigravettian (~ 24,000-12,000 BP) and the Magdalenian (~ 23,500-13,500 BP), has identified a potential association between burial practices and genetic ancestry (Marsh & Bello, 2023).”

• cites Marsh & Bello, 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Some Amazonian groups such as the Miraña practiced exo-cannibalism and fashioned necklaces from the teeth of their victims.

“Some Amazonian groups such as the Miraña practiced exo-cannibalism and fashioned necklaces from the teeth of their victims (Karadimas, 1997, p. 395).”

• cites Karadimas, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

At the Fijian Museum, a 'witchcraft stick' made of a human thigh-bone and a necklace made of fragments of the human remains of a warrior are exposed together with a human skull fashioned into a skullcup used as a drinking bowl.

“At the Fijian Museum, a 'witchcraft stick' made of a human thigh-bone and a necklace made of fragments of the human remains of a warrior are exposed together with a human skull fashioned into a skullcup used as a drinking bowl (http:// fijim useum. org. fj).”

• cites http:// fijim useum. org. fjNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The examples reviewed show a complex picture, with expressions that vary widely in their manifestations and modifications of human remains, including the recognition of different phases of starvation as well as highly ritualized feeding of complete bodies or body parts.

“Nevertheless, these examples alone show a complex picture, with expressions that vary widely in their manifestations and modifications of human remains, including the recognition of different phases of starvation as well as highly ritualized feeding of complete bodies or body parts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Genetic studies have established a link between funerary behaviour and genetic ancestry of past populations.

“Genetic studies have also recently established a link between funerary behaviour and genetic ancestry of past populations”